CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 Climate Change and Tourism
2.2.5 Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Community
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adaptation alternatives, before adopting it answers the viewpoint of the company and host community.
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Researchers proposed that the uncertainty regarding climate change consequences might be behind this scenario. The fact that Malaysia has been immune to natural catastrophes and climate change means that managers have lower expectations of possible problems resulting from climate change in their operations. Research done in Malaysia discovered that respondents' motivations for taking an active role on the subject of climate change at their firms also included considerations other than profits.
While education and awareness-building are said to be the most essential aspects for motivating participants in climate change mitigation activities, a large majority of respondents think so. Only financial data and records such as earnings and sales were seen as effective in communicating the necessity to take climate change effects into consideration for the firms and their employees (Begum and Pereira, 2013). The results indicate that despite their understanding of climate change being widespread, awareness initiatives implemented in Malaysia to educate the public about the risk of climate change were ineffective. Additionally, the level of community awareness around the issue is greatly reliant on their own experiences, and the attempts to remedy the issue will not begin until the issue has manifested itself.
Pulau Langkawi, Pulau Tuba, Pulau Tioman, and Pulau Redang have been recognised as the worst-hit islands by climate change (Ahmad, N. et al, 2019). As result of climate change, most islanders were aware of it. They also noted that the rising temperature is the most noticeable change. There was an increase of between 45.85 percent and 62.11% for some of the hottest nights in Langkawi (Pulau Langkawi and Pulau Tuba), Mersing (Pulau Tioman), and Kuala Terengganu during Kwan et al. (2013) study
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(Pulau Redang). Additionally, the islanders were concerned about the difficulty they had predicting weather due to the shifting patterns of the climate. Observing cloud patterns as an indigenous method of predicting the weather is no longer relevant in today's world. Islanders will have to contend with an unpredictable rainy season as well, as the statement, "There is not much rainfall in this area" has a low mean score.
Wan Azli (2010) and Subramaniam et al, (2011) both found that Peninsular Malaysia's rainy seasons are inconsistent, and this finding is consistent with their findings. The islanders of some groups are concerned about the drying season at their locations. This is vital to know. However, a hotter day and dry season will have a negative impact on fishermen's health despite the fact that they are able to carry out a successful fishing operation. This means that the islanders benefit from a higher-than-average degree of knowledge since it allows them to remain vigilant against the worsening effects of climate change.
Agriculture economies such as Pakistan's are extremely sensitive to climate change.
Experts think that because of Pakistan's significant dependency on agriculture, it ranks 12th worldwide in terms of its vulnerability to climate change (Ullah, 2017). A number of nations such as Pakistan realise the climate problem and know how to use effective and efficient adaption measures. Pakistan is among the countries whose adaptation potential is extremely limited owing to poverty and a lack of financial and physical wherewithal, according to the research published by Abid et al. (2016). As a result, the government of Pakistan has undertaken numerous projects in order to help farmers gain greater knowledge and adapt to modern farming techniques. To counteract the
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effects of climate change, Pakistan has started a major awareness campaign. As a first step towards adaptation, it is critical to consider two aspects of farmers' perceptions of climate change risks and uncertainties (Lebel et al., 2015). Climate change awareness includes knowledge of the phenomena, its causes and implications. The severity of climate change-related disasters influences the scope and direction of adaptation efforts. Climate-related perceptions and adaption methods of farmers are vital in reducing losses caused by climate change (Schiermeier, 2015).
The Himalaya, one of the world's biggest mountain systems, is located in one of the world's poorest regions (Hunzai et al., 2011), and it is a physically and ecologically diverse mountain system. The mountains are defined by a high level of biodiversity, undulating physical landscapes, a range of weather regimes, and a variety of social and cultural characteristics. The Himalayan region, a vulnerable region prone to a variety of disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, droughts, wildfires, and cloudbursts, is undergoing a slew of unwanted changes in both the biophysical and social worlds, the majority of which are a result of climate change (Jing and Leduc, 2010). Although it is predicted that the region's net temperature increase would be between 1.7 and 2.2 degrees Celsius over 1970s levels by 2030 (INCCA, 2010), an increase in the frequency and intensity of severe events has been seen in recent years (UAPCC, 2012).
These changes endanger water resources, biodiversity, agriculture, human health, and food security (Chaudhary and Bawa, 2011), all of which are necessary components of a high standard of living (MEA, 2005). The region's residents lack access to basic infrastructure, services, and institutions, and are more reliant on natural resources
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(Hunzai et al., 2011). As a result of the Himalaya's topography and socioeconomic context, the region is extremely sensitive to risk factors such as climate change, population increase, and globalisation (Gerlitz et al., 2014). A risk-based approach may assist in elucidating the underlying connections between actual adaptation behaviour, awareness of climate change-related events, and local residents' perceptions about future climate change (Li et al., 2017).
An interdisciplinary approach was taken in Serbia to develop and execute climate change adaptation measures. Awareness was also a significant problem in both Serbia and Croatia, with many attempts to improve capacity while dealing with climate change consequences. In particular, they intended to improve crop selection advising services and increase local people' involvement in sustainable forest management (Pietrapertosa et al.,2017). In South East European nations, several volunteer efforts on urban adaptation and health were also undertaken by various cities, facilitated by their involvement in (European Union) EU-funded programmes (Recken et al., 2014).
Among them, certain Italian cities have committed to developing thorough adaptation plans (Salvia et al., 2014, Olazabal et at., 2014, De Gregorio et al., 2015). Padova and Reggio Emilia established climate plans (2011) as part of the EU LIFE-LAKS project (2016), Ancona accepted its Local Adaptation Plan as part of the EU LIFE ACT project (2016), and Bologna approved its adaptation plan as part of the EU LIFE-BlueAp project (2016). A significant role is also performed in this framework by the Mayors Adapt project (2016), which is based on the successful structure of the Covenant of Mayors (2016). It was established in 2013 as part of the EU's adaptation
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policy, with the overarching goal of promoting urban leadership in adaptation and providing cities with significant assistance for local climate change adaptation initiatives. Mayor Adapt and the Covenant of Mayors merged in October 2015, and the resulting Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy (2016) was announced as the "world's largest urban climate and energy initiative," in which thousands of local and regional governments collaborate voluntarily to meet the EU's energy and climate targets by integrating mitigation and adaptation measures. This programme is designed to increase local government involvement in operationalizing climate adaption principles in urban development.
Individuals or communities' attitudes toward certain behaviours in particular contexts are altered through perception. Individuals' knowledge and attitudes play a critical role in enhancing natural settings (Mumtaz et al., 2019). Individuals' original attitudes are challenged or altered by fresh knowledge or circumstances (Nazir et al., 2019). The basic assumption of the 'theory of planned behaviour' is an individual's desire to depict a specific behaviour. This intention indicates the amount of desire and effort that an individual will put out to project a behaviour and is determined by his attitude toward the activity, subjective standards, and assumed behavioural control (de Oliveira et al., 2019). This theoretical viewpoint applies to climate action; thus, interventions attempt to create new attitudes and perceptions about a new behaviour by changing mediating variables like knowledge and societal norms. (Mumtaz and et al., 2019). Similarly, social cognition theory (Bandura, 2001) states that human and environmental variables interact to shape human behaviour. The core notion of social cognitive theory is
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efficacy (de Oliveira et al., 2019). Most people are aware of climate change, but less so of its consequences and urgency.
Lack of awareness leads to inaction or minimal attempt to effect change. No effective platform where their voices may be heard/actions created (UNEP, 2006). In addition, the programme increases knowledge of climate change impacts, supports assessment, adaptive policy formulation, increases adaptive capacity, reduces vulnerability.
Newspapers, the internet, and television are all examples of media that assist in distributing the message (Arlt et al., 2011). Madobi (2012) noted that one of the UNFCCC's Article 4 obligations is for all parties to "promote and collaborate in education, training, and public awareness linked to climate change, and to encourage the broadest possible involvement in this process." Knowledge about climate change is critical for individuals making development decisions and for governments enacting policy decisions to address climate change (Dineshkumar and Moghariya, 2012).
2.2.6 Socioeconomics characteristics and respondent’s awareness
Numerous scientists, social scientists, and environmental education researchers have conducted a vast number of studies on climate change, including investigations into its causes, future effects, mitigation strategies, and adaptation options (Frondel et al., 2017). Research on climate change is available in the literature on a variety of topics, including adaptation, experience, and perception, as well as the influence of socio-demographic factors on climate change sensitivity, knowledge, and understanding (Odafivwotu, 2015; Opaluwa et al., 2020; Ricart et al., 2018). Some of these topics
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include: the influence of socio-demographic factors on climate change sensitivity, knowledge, and understanding. Variables such as personal beliefs, societal values, experience, and socio-economic demographics (for example, gender, age, occupation, educational attainment, and place of residence) all have an impact on the ways in which people think, behave, and act in relation to climate change. These factors are all interconnected.
Korkmaz (2018) revealed that over half of the people who participated in the survey were aware of climate change. The research was carried out in three different cities in Turkey. According to the demographic research conducted on people's awareness of climate change, it was discovered that females displayed a higher level of worry towards climate change than their male counterparts. In addition, neither age nor money played a role in the outcome. In addition, age, social class, income, and degree of education were not shown to be factors that were significantly different from one another in terms of climate change awareness. Lee et al. (2015) conducted a study on the influence of perceived wellbeing, socio-demographic characteristics, beliefs, and location on public risk perceptions and climate change awareness. The data for this study came from Gallup World's 2007-2008 survey of 119 nations throughout the world. According to the findings of the study, educational level was the most powerful predictor of climate change awareness in all of the countries that were investigated.
Furthermore, the study found that an understanding of anthropogenic sources was the most potent predictor of climate change risk perceptions in Europe and Latin America.
Finally, the perception of changes in local temperature was the most powerful
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predictor of climate change risk perceptions in the majority of the African and Asian countries that were investigated. The research that Haq and Ahmed (2017) conducted in Bangladesh looked into the socio-demographic aspect of people's perspectives on climate change. The findings showed that people's perspectives on climate change vary depending on factors such as gender, marital status, religious affiliation, and age.
In Laos and Thailand, Rahman et al. (2021) investigated how people in rural and urban areas, as well as government officials, understand, feel about, and act in response to climate change and dengue disease. Among persons of varying ages, levels of education, and socioeconomic status, they found significant disparities in attitudes concerning climate change and dengue illness. This study found that participants' knowledge of climate change and dengue was highly influenced by their education and socioeconomic background. Dengue fever and climate change attitudes and actions were found to be associated to education and internet use.
2.3 Tourism in Malaysia
In South-East Asia, Malaysia is a secular and democratic constitutional monarchy.
Malaysia is surrounded by Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. This comprises of two regions; peninsular Malaysia, situated between Singapore and Thailand, and East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, across the Southern China Sea. Malaysia has a temperature range between 21 ° C and 32 ° C, which is generally warm during the year. Two of the aspects that draw the visitor’s attention are this natural environment along with its beaches and islands. The greatest strength of Malaysia is its fascinating
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nature with year-round sunshine, cultural diversity and friendly people. The most attracting activities for tourists are leisure, business-related events and shopping.
Entertainment; beach and island tourism are increasingly becoming some of the major areas where tourists spend much time. The first tourism efforts in Malaysia was made in the 1960s. Yet the local economy was mostly based on commodity products up until the 1970s, primarily petroleum, rubber, tin and palm oil, though even low concern existed in the touristic market.
After the collapse of primary commodity prices in the same decade and the booming of worldwide tourism in 1980, Malaysia has acknowledged the economic and social growth capacity of the tourist sector and has encouraged national cohesion and integration (Mosbah & Al Khuja, 2014). The Malaysian 5-year plans (MPs), in particular the past 7 plans (4th to 10th MPs), shows significant concern regarding improving the sector of tourism first. These plans were supplemented with National Tourism Policy (NTP) in 1992, the National Ecotourism Plan (NEP) in 1996 and the Malaysian Tourism Transformation Programme (MTTP) in 2010. In a rather specific context, the tourism industry has been specifically recognised as one of the main National Key Economic Areas (NKEAs) which has contributed to the economy.
Hence, the MTTP was formulated to tap the growth potential of the tourism sector. As to earn MYR168 billion as revenues in 2020, MTTP targets in attracting 36 million international tourists which over three times its existing foreign exchange profits (Ministry of Tourism, 2013).
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According to Bhuiyan et al. (2013), Malaysian Government has played a key role in implementing and improving various legislation and has established the correct institutional and legal structure to guarantee sustainable tourism. Two government agencies are responsible for tourism growth in Malaysia. Firstly, the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism (MOCAT), which was responsible for planning, supervision and implementation of strategy with the State until 2004. Secondly, the MTPB has a crucial role to play in promotion, encouraging facets of tourism and recommending incentives for investment. Some other federal agencies are also involved in tourism development including: (i) Department of Agriculture (agro-tourism), (ii) Department of Forestry (eco(agro-tourism), (iii) Department of Fisheries (coastal tourism), (iv) Department of Wildlife and National Parks (ecotourism), (v) Department of Aborigines’ Affairs (ethnic tourism), and (vi) Department of Museums and Antiquities (heritage/cultural tourism). Malaysia has been one of the growing tourism destinations in the world in recent years. The tourism industry is currently an important economic contributor and is recognized as a leading foreign exchange revenue generator and being a push factor for economic development. It accounts for between 8 and 10% of GDP (Sivalingam, 2007). Tourism sector and tourism-related industries generated almost two million jobs in 2011 (Ministry of Tourism, 2013).
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Monthly Tourist Arrival in 2019
Source: Ministry of Tourism (2020)
Throughout the first quarter of 2019 the national tourism industry reported a strong rise, with tourist spending showing an improvement of +16.9% to RM21.4 billion in 2018 over RM18.3 billion (Ministry of Tourism, 2020). Per capita income has also risen by +13.8% from 2018 to 2019 between RM2, 813.1 and RM3, 201.8 (Ministry of Tourism, 2020). Figure 2.1 depicts the data of tourists’ arrivals to Malaysia in 2019.
In the first quarter of 2019, tourism arrivals to Malaysia rose by +2.7%, with a total of 6,696,230 tourists compared with 6,520,218 in 2018 (Ministry of Tourism, 2020).
Based on monthly arrivals, Malaysia received a record of 2,195,684 tourism visitors in January, in February, 2,165,933, and in March, 2, 334, 61 (Ministry of Tourism,
2.2 2.17 2.33
2.16 2.1
2.4 2.42 2.34
2 2.03 1.97 1.99
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Jan Feb Mac April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
No of. Tourist Arrival Millions
Month
Tourist Arrival (2019)
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2020). With a share of 68.3%, reflecting a +1.9% increase to 4,576,636 tourists in the first quarter of 2019 has made ASEAN, maintained its lead as the biggest contributor of international tourist arrivals to Malaysia (Ministry of Tourism, 2020).
Figure 2.2
Monthly Arrival by Country in 2019
Source: Ministry of Tourism (2020)
Further, Figure 2.2 shows the data of tourists’ arrivals to Malaysia by country in 2019.
During the first quarter of 2019, the share for the medium-haul market was 21.9% with a +8.6% increase of arrivals to 1,466,993 tourists, driven mainly by China, Korea, Japan, India and Pakistan while the average length of stay (ALOS) saw an improvement of 1.8 nights from 4.2 nights in 2018 to 6.0 nights in 2019 in Malaysia for the first quarter of 2019 (Ministry of Tourism, 2020). The Malaysia government has tried to develop plans and policies for growing the tourism industry in Malaysia,
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Jan Feb March Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
No of. Tourist Millions
Month
Monthly Arrival by Country in 2019
Asia Singapore Europe Pacific America Linear (Asia)
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with the goal of diversifying and reducing export dependence (Munan, 2002).
Malaysia has been the 10th most visited country in 2012, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2012). Tang and Tan (2013) have examined the relations of tourism in Malaysia with economic growth and also stability of it. Tang and Tan (2015) also argue that Malaysia's economic growth position in tourism is catalyst and inbound tourism policies can effectively stimulate economic growth. As an effort to gain a sustainable tourism development, this vital economic contributor has been highlighted in the Malaysian NTP designed in 1992. The purpose of having such policy is to merge the required guiding principles and management practices specifically in thriving tourism destination and eco-tourism which is included in the sustainable tourism activities. Malaysian government has taken significant efforts to preserve the country's climate, social and cultural heritage and has taken numerous measures to conserve its natural environment and its resources to grow tourism, through the development of various acts and policies to ensure that sustainable tourism is best implemented. Among these include: Protection of Wildlife Act 1972; National Parks Act 1980; the National Forestry Act 1984; the Fisheries Act 1985; the Environmental Quality Order 1987; and the Marine Parks Malaysia Order 1994.
There was a report on climate change condition of the tourism areas in Malaysia. It has been published by Asian Development Banks in 2021. It stated that tourism is a big part of the Malaysian economy. It is estimated that there were about 27 million overnight visitors to Malaysia in 2017. UNWTO says that tourism directly employs
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4.6% of the workforce and indirectly contributes to 11.8 million jobs, which is about 5% of the workforce. People go to the country's coastal states more than any other place outside of the capital. A lot of research shows that Malaysia's coastal areas, and especially its mangrove ecosystems, are at risk of being flooded. Areas that are more likely to be flooded include tourism infrastructure. There are also risks to tourism because extreme heats can make people uncomfortable and cause health problems.
Some studies say that the popularity of higher-latitude places is increasing because of changes in the temperature. Flood risk and coral bleaching are two more climate risks that could make a place less appealing. Climate change may also have an effect on Malaysia's tourism industry because of global efforts to fight climate change. One possible sign is that the cost of international flights has gone up. One study said that even though the cost of achieving an emissions-target-compliant tourism sector may be low (3.6%), the extra cost of a trip (estimated at $11 when averaging across every global trip but could be higher on a long-haul trip) may make Malaysia less appealing to tourists. There needs to be more research done to better define the possible effects of climate change on the sector.