Teaching of Critical Thinking

In this section, teaching of critical thinking will be looked into from two aspects: 1) teaching and learning methodology used to enhance critical thinking which covers the role of students and teachers in class and also 2) the type of activities and tasks designed that can be used to promote critical thinking.

2.3.1 Teaching and Learning Methodology and Critical Thinking

Teaching practice that favours rote learning , spoon feeding and teacher- centeredness are deemed no longer suitable to be practised by teachers in large scale as they hardly help in promoting critical thinking among the students. In order to train students to become critical thinkers, student-centeredness is the main key. In other words, teacher’s role as an authoritative figure in classroom needs to be altered. Their new role is to be a facilitator who scaffolds the teaching and learning process, guides the students towards creating new knowledge and solving problems, discusses in depth on issues by providing insightful comments, ideas and feedback to the students (Hung, Tan, & Koh, 2006; Wohlfarth et al., 2008). For instance, where second language teaching and learning is concerned, teaching methodologies such as audiolingual method and grammar translation method are considered inappropriate and outdated. They are not effective in fostering thinking culture among the students because they emphazised on teacher-centeredness. In contrast, teaching methodologies such as problem-based learning, cooperative learning, communicative language teaching and inquiry based learning that emphazise on student-centeredness are encouraged to be practised by teachers. Student centeredness teaching is said to be able to encourage critical thinking among the students (Hung, 2006). These methodologies regard students as active learners in the teaching and learning process instead of just being passive knowledge retriever throughout lessons in classroom. In addition, in order to promote critical thinking culture in the classrooms, educators are also urged to design learning tasks and activities that require students to exercise thinking skills such as analysing, synthesizing and evaluating.

These three thinking skills are known as the higher order thinking skills according to Bloom Taxonomy (1956). Furthermore, constructivism school of thought which advocates cooperative and collaborative learning further propels the reform of

educational system (Lai, 2011). This is because constructivism also stresses on the importance to recognise the entity of students as potential knowledge generators themselves. Lai (2011) asserted that students are able to construct their own knowledge based on their own previous life experience and also through their interaction with others. Thus, students should be treated as active actors in teaching and learning process.

Several studies also have shown that the application of constructivism teaching pedagogy can promote critical thinking development among students (Afolabi

&Akinbobola, 2009; Bandeira, 2009; K. M. Li, 2010). Researchers like Leston-Bandeira (2009) conducted case studies to investigate the effectiveness of two learning modules in developing critical thinking among students. She found that e-learning modules which encouraged the use of active e-learning and constructivist approach can help foster critical thinking among students. Based on their research findings, Akinbobora and Afolabi (2009) suggested that constructivist practices, through guided discovery approach, can engage students in critical thinking process. In addition, Li (2010) investigated the possible link between the use of social-constructivist pedagogical model and the improved critical thinking. He stated that the integration of social constructivist pedagogical model could enhance students’ critical thinking skills.

In addition, there were also a number of studies which support the claim that cooperative learning and collaborative learning modes used in classroom, can help to promote critical thinking among the students (Goyak, 2009; Maesin, Mansor, Shafie, &

Nayan, 2009).For instance, proponents of collaborative learning claimed that collaborative learning not only increases the interests to learn among the students, but it also encourages them to think critically. Study by Gokhale (1995) showed that collaborative learning has positive effect on promoting critical thinking and facilitating problem solving among the participants and collaborative learning is especially helpful

when the instructor’s aim is to stimulate critical thinking among students. Besides that, one of the benefits of cooperative learning recognised by Panitz & Panitz (1998) is improved critical thinking. Panitz (1999) believed that in a typical college classroom which emphasizes on lecturing, there is little time for reflection and discussion of students’ errors or misconceptions. However, with the practice of cooperative learning paradigm, students are continuously engaging themselves in discussion and debate.

Through engaging the students in higher level discussion within group, their critical thinking skills can be harnessed. Study conducted by Barzdziukiene et.al. (2006) also showed a relationship is established between critical thinking and cooperative learning and they stated that students who can master critical thinking are also those who can master cooperative learning skills. They further proposed the strategies on how to carry out cooperative learning effectively so that it can become a suitable alternative used to nurture critical thinking.

Apart from collaborative and cooperative learning modes, questioning has been acknowledged as one of the practices that should be encouraged in the classroom. This is because many believe that questioning is an activity that helps in stimulating and fostering critical thinking (M. E. Alexander, Commander, Greenberg, & Ward, 2010;

Walker, 2005).One of the techniques of questioning is known as Socratic questioning.

Thus, Socratic Questioning is recommended to be used by educators with their students in order to enhance critical thinking (MacKnight, 2000; Paul & Elder, 2006; Yang, Newby, & Bill, 2005). For instance, Yang (2005) and Macknight (2000) pointed out the importance of using Socratic questioning technique by participants of asynchronous online discussions, as it will help to develop their critical thinking skills. Paul and Elder (2006) mentioned in their book that deep questioning is the cornerstone of critical thinking and they have come out with examples on how to practise Socratic questioning.

Thus, Socratic questioning could be the approach adopted by educators to teach the

students the right and effective way to construct and ask thought- provoking questions that involve the use of higher level thinking skills. The questions constructed using Socratic questioning techniques require the respondents to exercise their critical thinking skills in order to answer them. Thus, it is said that during this questioning and answering period, critical thinking skills of both parties i.e. questioners and respondents can be improved further. Apart from the abovementioned teaching methodologies and questioning technique which could contribute to promoting critical thinking among the learners, writing activity could also trigger students to think critically. Studies that looked into writing activity and critical thinking would be reviewed in the following section.

2.3.2 Writing Activity and Critical Thinking

Other activities such as writing are said to be able to develop critical thinking skills.

According to Gocsik (2002), writing needs students to make important critical choices and ask critical questions themselves, both tasks require critical thinking to complete.

Burton (2003) also indicated that writing can be an effective way to teach critical thinking.

Burton (2003) also claimed that being able to construct, identify and evaluate arguments is one of the skills that students need to acquire in order to become critical thinkers. In terms of writing tasks, argumentative writing is perceived by many scholars as an activity that can foster critical thinking among the learners (Flores, 2006; Hillocks Jr, 2010; Lai, 2011; Rex, Thomas, & Engel, 2010)For instance, Lai (2011) stated that the tasks that are deemed appropriate to assess critical thinking are those tasks which are in open- ended format, using authentic real life issues as the catalyst of problem solving activities and also those that require students to create logical arguments. Rex, Thomas

& Engel (2010) and Hillocks Jr (2010) stressed the importance of creating critical

thinkers through the teaching of constructing reasoned and logical arguments. This is because being able to argue is considered as part of critical thinking skills.

After reviewing the literature pertaining to the teaching of critical thinking which focused on aspects such as the reforming of educational policy, altering of teaching and learning methodologies from teacher-centered mode to student-centered mode, cultivating questioning culture in classrooms and using activities such as writing to foster critical thinking among students, the issue of how to assess critical thinking effectively is also a matter of great concern to the educators. This is because assessment is one of the ways that can provide feedback to educators on the effectiveness of their teaching concerning critical thinking. Therefore, in the following section, studies that looked into the issue of assessing critical thinking will be reviewed.