The Influence Of River Discharges, Tides, And Winds On Estuarine Plume In Northwest Peninsular Malaysia

THE INFLUENCE OF RIVER DISCHARGES, TIDES, ^AND

WINDS ON ESTUARINE PLUME IN NORTHWEST

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

by

MUHAMMAD SYUKRI

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the

requirements

^{for the}

degree

of Doctor of

Philosophy

December 2006

<To 'Very

special: peopfe

ⁱⁿmy

life:

my

(ate mother (/)juairiali ^Sa6�

my

wife ^(]Uni Safitri

anti

my

^son

CJ{fLuslian ^a{ 7(p.syjie

^!ill

^uhammad

The origins of oceanography ^{lie in} voyaging

^...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As a

long journey

^and endeavour, this thesis was not a solo effort. lowe a

tremendous of

gratitude

^to the many

people

that assist and

support

^{me, that it is}

difficult to know where to

begin

^{and end this list. Even after one of the}

longest acknowledgments

^{list ever} written in this thesis is

done,

^{I am sure I will have}

forgotten

some

important people.

To you J offer my

apologies

^and

implicit

thanks. I would like to thank the

University

^of

Syiah

^Kuala

(USK), Darussalam,

^Banda

Aceh,

^{Indonesia for}

providing

^the

scholarship

^to

support

my

study.

^{I also wish to thank}

University

^Science

Malaysia (USM),

^for

serving

^{and the use of all}

facility,

where I learnt so much from

being part

^ofa

graduate

student here.

The very

first,

^{I want to} pay

special

^tribute to my advisor and friend Dr. Md. Noordin Abu Bakar has served ^{as a} source of

inspiration

^{since the}

conception

^{of this}

thesis, helped

^{me with}

advice,

^{comments and}

suggestions.

^{He was}

always

available when I needed his advice or

wisdom,

but gave ^me the freedom to work

independently.

^He

has demonstrated

impeccable leadership

^{and has}

given

^{me a}

strong

^{foundation on} which to build my ^own

independent

research program.

Insya ^Allah,

my ^{career as an}

oceanographer

^{in the} future will

always

^{reflect what I} have learned as a student from him. Further _more, I also would like to thank to Ass. Prof. Dr. Khiruddin Abdullah as a

co-supervisor

^for

reviewing

^{some of the results. Then I would like to extent my thanks}

to Dr. Zuhar Zahir Tuan Harith for

guiding, suggestions

^and useful discussion

during

my

study.

111

I would like to thanks the

Malaysia Meteorological

^Service

(MMS)

^for

kindly providing

the

meteorology

^and

hydrographic ^data,

^the

Hydrology

^{and Water Resources}

Division,

Department

^of

Irrigation

^and

Drainage (DID) Malaysia

^for

graciously providing

^the

suspended

^sediment

concentration,

^river

discharge,

^{and river}

stage data,

^the

Malaysian Mapping

^and

Survey Department (MMSD)

^for

pleasantly providing

the tide observation

data, Centre

for Marine and Coastal Studies

(CEMAC)

USM for their

friendship

and all those who

helped

^{me with}

laboratory

work for the TSS

analysis,

^Kedah

Flying

^Club

(KFC)

^for

supplied

^aerial

images

from aerial surveys with their small aircraft. These datasets contributed

significantly

^{to the}

quality

^{of the}

work and

study presented

^{in these pages.}

I want to thank the Dean School of

Physics USM,

all staff of

Geophysics Laboratory,

School of

Physics,

^for

providing

^an

atmosphere teeming

^{with a} collaborative

spirit

^and

enthusiasm for the research.

Special

thanks also _{to my} wonderful friends and team works En. Yaakub

Othman,

^En.

Jamalludin,

^{Uncle Abu}

Bakar,

for their technical

advice,

^who

helped

^me with field surveys of the

days

^and

nights

and in all weathers.

They

^were also enthusiastic about my

project

^{and made the}

days

^I

spent

^field

surveying enjoyable.

^{En. Zainul}

^Abidin,

^Shahil

^Ahmad,

^Shaiful

^Mahathir,

^and

^Faisal,

^a

very

special

thank you for all your

help, cooperation,

assistance and

encouragement.

Further,

I would like to express my

special

^{thanks to} my

parents,

Usman Ismail and

(late) Djuairiah ^Sabi,

^and my

parents-in-law,

Soewardi Soekirman and Nur Aini

Umar,

my sisters and

brothers,

^{k'ina and}

b'Samsoel,

^k'

Nyanyak

^and

b'PoeJ,

^{k'ida and}

b'ljal,

and Ismail for their

supporting

^{and do'a}

during

this very

challenging period

in my life.

Finally, especially

^{and most}

importantly,

^to my wife and best friend Rini

Safitri,

^and my ^son and sources of

inspiration

^{Raushan al}

Kasyfie Muhammad,

for their wonderful

support, love, patience, distraction,

^{and comfort}

during

^this

trying odyssey

^{know as}

graduate school,

^and

particularly during

^that rather surreal

period

^{know as}

"writing up".

^{I could not have done} this without

them,

and dedicate my thesis to them.

v

Contents

Page

Acknowledgements

ⁱⁱⁱ

Contents ^vi

List of Tables ^xiii

List of

Figures

^xiv

List of Abbreviations ^xxvi

List of

Symbols

^xxviii

List of

Appendices

^xxx

Abstrak ^xxxi

Abstract ^xxxiii

1

Chapter

^One: Introduction

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Motivation 2

1.2

Hypothesis

⁴

1.3

Objectives

and scope 6

1.4 Thesis Outline 7

Chapter

^Two: Literature Review 9

2.0

Estuary plume

^{structures 9}

2.1 Sediment

transport

¹⁴

2.2 Factors

affecting estuary plumes

¹⁹

2.2.1 River

discharges

¹⁹

2.2.2 Tides 20

2.2.3 Winds and waves 22

2.3 Currents in coastal waters and estuaries 25

2.4 Remote

sensing technology

ⁱⁿ

detecting estuary plume

27

2.4.1 Innovative

mapping

^and

modeling

²⁷

2.4.2 Other remote

sensing applications

³²

Chapter

^Three:

Methodology

³⁴

3.0 Definition of the

study

^{areas 34}

3.1 Site

description

and catchment area 36

3.2

Geological setting

³⁹

3.3

Meteorological

^and

hydrographic data

⁴³

3.3.1 Climate data 45

a.

Temperature

⁴⁶

b. Relative

humidity

⁴⁸

c. Rainfall 48

3.3.2 Wind data ⁴⁹

3.3.3 Tidal data 52

3.4 Field surveys 53

3.4.1 Muda surveys 54

3.4.2 Merbok surveys 68

3.4.3 Prai surveys 74

3.5

Laboratory

^{work 81}

3.6 Data

processing

^and

analysis

⁸¹

3.6.1

Mapping

^and

contouring

^{data 81}

3.6.2

Density

⁸²

3.6.3 Water masses 87

3.6.4 Water

mixing

⁸⁸

3.6.5 Validation of total

suspended

^{solids 89}

Chapter

^Four:

^Muda Surveys

⁹⁰

4.0 Introduction 90

4.1 River

discharge

^{influence 91}

4.1.1

Salinity

⁹¹

a. Horizontal distribution 91

b. Vertical distribution 95

VII

4.1.2

Temperature

¹⁰⁰

a. Horizontal distribution ¹⁰⁰

b. Vertical distribution 106

4.1.3

Density

¹¹⁰

a. Horizontal distribution ¹¹⁰

b. Vertical distribution 115

4.1.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 118}

4.1.5

Suspended

^{sediment load in the river 121}

4.2 Tidal influence ¹²⁸

4.2.1

Salinity

¹²⁹

a. Horizontal distribution 129

b. Vertical distribution 135

4.2.2

Temperature

¹³⁸

a. Horizontal distribution 138

b. Vertical distribution 143

4.2.3

Density

¹⁴⁵

a. Horizontal distribution 145

b. Vertical distribution 151

4.2.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 153}

4.3 ^:Wind influence 156

4.3.1

Salinity

¹⁵⁶

4.3.2

Temperature

¹⁵⁸

4.3.3

Density

¹⁶⁰

4.3.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 161}

4.4 Current characteristics 163

4.4.1 In the

estuary

¹⁶³

4.4.2 At the coastal zone 168

4.5 Discussion 176

4.5.1 River

discharge

^{influence 176}

a.

Salinity pattern

¹⁷⁶

b.

Temperature pattern

¹⁸¹

c.

Density pattern

¹⁸³

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

¹⁸⁶

4.5.2 Tidal influence ¹⁹¹

a.

Salinity pattern

¹⁹¹

b.

Temperature pattern

¹⁹⁶

c.

Density pattern

¹⁹⁹

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

²⁰³

4.5.3 Wind influence 205

a.

Salinity pattern

²⁰⁶

b.

Temperature pattern

²⁰⁷

c.

Density pattern

²⁰⁸

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

²⁰⁹

4.5.4 Monsoon

variability

^and

atmospheric temperature

²¹⁰

4.5.5 Water masses 215

4.5.6 Aerial surveys 217

4.6

Summary

of field surveys 226

Chapter

^{Five: Merbok}

Surveys

²³⁴

5.0 I ntrod uction 234

5.1 River

discharge

^{influence 235}

5.1.1

Salinity

²³⁵

a. Horizontal distribution 235

b. Vertical distribution 237

5.1.2

Temperature

²⁴⁰

a. Horizontal distribution ²⁴⁰

b. Vertical distribution 242

5.1.3

Density

²⁴⁵

a. Horizontal distribution 245

b. Vertical distribution ²⁴⁶

5.1.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 249}

5.1.5 Secchi

depth

²⁵¹

5.2 Tidal influence 253

5.2.1

Salinity

²⁵³

a. Horizontal distribution 253

.ix

b. Vertical distribution 254

5.2.2

Temperature

²⁵⁷

a. Horizontal distribution 257

b. Vertical distribution 259

5.2.3

Density

²⁶¹

a. Horizontal distribution 261

b. Vertical distribution 263

5.2.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 265}

5.2.5 Secchi

depth

²⁶⁷

5.3 Wind influence 268

5.3.1

Salinity

²⁶⁸

5.3.2

Temperature

²⁷⁰

5.3.3

Density

²⁷¹

5.3.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 272}

5.3.5 Secchi

depth

²⁷³

5.4 Current characteristics 274

5.5 Discussion 283

5.5.1 River

discharge

^{influence 283}

a.

Salinity pattern

²⁸³

b.

Temperature pattern

²⁸⁵

c.

Density pattern

²⁸⁷

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

²⁹⁰

e. Secchi

depth pattern

²⁹²

5.5.2 Tidal influence 294

a.

Salinity pattern

²⁹⁶

b.

Temperature pattern

³⁰⁰

c.

Density pattern

³⁰¹

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

³⁰³

e. Secchi

depth pattern

³⁰⁵

5.5.3 Wind influence 307

a.

Salinity pattern

³⁰⁷

b.

Temperature pattern

308

c.

Density pattern

309

d. Total

suspended

^solid

pattern

³¹⁰

e. Secchi

depth pattern

³¹¹

5.5.4 Monsoon

variability

^and

atmospheric temperature

³¹²

5.5.5 Water ^masses 317

5.5.6

Mixing

^{Processes 319}

5.5.7 Aerial surveys 324

5.6

Summary

of field surveys 332

Chapter

^{Six: Prai}

Surveys

³³⁵

6.0 Introduction 335

6.1 River

discharge

^{influence 336}

6.1.1

Salinity

³³⁶

6.1.2

Temperature

³³⁸

6.1.3

Density

³³⁹

6.1.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 340}

6.2 Tidal influence 341

6.2.1

Salinity

³⁴¹

6.2.2

Temperature

³⁴²

6.2.3

Density

³⁴³

6.2.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 345}

6.3 Wind influence 346

6.3.1

Salinity

³⁴⁶

6.3.2

Temperature

³⁴⁷

6.3.3

Density

³⁴⁸

6.3.4 Total

suspended

^{solids 349}

6.4 Discussion 351

6.4.1 River

discharge

^{influence 351}

a.

Salinity pattern

³⁵¹

b.

Temperature pattern

³⁵³

c.

Density pattern

³⁵⁴

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

³⁵⁵

6.4.2 Tidal influence 357

xi

a.

Salinity pattern

³⁵⁷

b.

Temperature pattern

³⁵⁸

c.

Density pattern

³⁵⁹

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

³⁶⁰

6.4.3 Wind influence 362

a.

Salinity pattern

³⁶²

b.

Temperature pattern

³⁶³

c.

Density pattern

³⁶³

d. Total

suspended

^solids

pattern

³⁶⁴

6.4.4Aerial surveys 365

6.5

Summary

of field surveys 376

Chapter

Seven: Conclusions and Future Works ³⁷⁹

7.0 Conclusions

7.1 Recommendations and future work

requirements

379 383

References

List of Publications

385 398

Appendices

Appendix

^{A :} All results of Muda surveys

Appendix

^{B : All results of} Merbok surveys

Appendix

^{C : All results} of Prai surveys

CD CD CD CD

List of Tables

Page

2.1

Discharge

data for the world's

largest

^{rivers. 15}

3.1 Field surveys

(date ordered)

^on the Muda coastal area. 55 3.2

Summary

of cumulative 5

days

rainfall and river

discharge.

^{Tabulated 59}

are the river

discharge

^{conditions under}

high

^{and low}

discharge

observed

during study period.

3.3

Daily

^mean and maximum wind

speed

^and direction data

along

^{the 67}

survey

days.

3.4 Field surveys

(date ordered)

^on the lower Merbok

Estuary.

⁶⁹

3.5 River

discharge condition,

divide based on S values

during study

⁷³

period.

3.6 Field _surveys

(date ordered)

^{on the Prai coastal area. 78}

4.1 TSS concentrations

during

various field surveys. 154 4.2 Details of surveys to the Muda coastal

region

^{and around}

estuary

²²⁷

mouth

during study period.

4.3 Data measured

(date ordered)

^{on the Muda coastal}

region

^{and 229}

around

estuary

^mouth

during study period.

4.4

Summary

of characteristics of

estuary plume during

field surveys ^on 232 the Muda coastal

region.

5.1 River

discharge; ^condition, density

^{and TSS values}

during study

²⁹¹

period.

5.2 The

RL

values for survey ^on 23 March 2003. 320

5.3 The

RL

^values for survey ^on 19

May

^{2003. 320}

5.4 The

RL

values for survey ^on 20

May

^{2003. 321}

5.5 The

RL

values for survey ^on 7 June 2003. 321

5.6 Details of

meteorological

^{data to} lower Merbok

Estuary during study

³³³

period.

5.7 Data measured

(date ordered)

^on the lower Merbok

Estuary during

³³⁴

study period.

6.1 Details of surveys to Prai coastal ^area

(Penang Channel) during

³⁷⁷

study. period.

6.2 Data measured

(date ordered)

^{on the Prai coastal area}

(Penang

³⁷⁸

Channel) during study period.

xiii

List of Figures

Page

1.1

(a)

A schematic

plan

^{view of an}

estuary plume

in the coastal

water,

⁴ and

(b).

^A vertical section of an

estuary plume

^{as the fresher water}

discharge

^{from the}

estuary

^to coastal water.

2.1 Sketch of

buoyant layer

^scales.

(a)

^x and yare

alongshore

^{and 10}

across-shore coordinates. Dashed line denotes ^a

bounding isopicnal

contour for the

buoyant layer.

^{U is}

typical alongshore buoyant

^water

velocity.

^{L and}

yL

^{are the}

alongshore

and the across-shore

length scale, respectively. (b)

^A

typical

across-shore vertical section with vertical coordinate z. Dashed line shows

typical bounding isopicnal

for the

buoyant

^of

typical depth

^h.

(from ^Garvine, 1995).

2.2

Salinity

distributions

during

^the

January

^{1997 flood.}

Upper panels:

¹²

near-surface

(1.5m) salinity distributions:

^lower

panel:

cross-sections at

estuary

^mouth.

(from Geyer

^et

^al., 2000).

2.3 Total

suspended

sediment distributions

during

^{the 1997 flood.}

Upper

¹³

panels:

near-surface

(1.5 m) suspended solids,

^{based on water}

samples;

^lower

panel:

cross-sections at river

mouth,

^{based on water}

samples

^and

optical

backscatterance ^sensor

(08S) profiles (from Geyer

^et

ai., 2000).

2.4 Schematic

diagram illustrating estuary plume push by gravity

^{driven 16}

flow

(from Wright

^et

ai., 2001).

2.5

Conceptual diagram

^{of river}

flow, according

^{to the}

strength

^of

^outflow,

²¹

the

plume

may ^{turn to} left or

right (from James, 1997).

2.6 A schematic

diagram

of the structure of surface

density

in the Gulf of 23 Mexico at the mouth of the

Mississippi

^River

during (a)

^{the flood tide}

and

(b)

^{ebb tide}

(from Da99

^et

^aI., 2001).

2.7 Structure of vertical

salinity

between 10 and 1m from surface in the 25 Rhine River.

(a)

^Vertical

salinity

differences at location T ⁼ Ter

Heijde

(between

^Rotterdam

Waterway

^and

Scheveningen),

^{N =}

Noorwijk,

and Y ⁼ IJmuiden. and

(b)

^Vertical

salinity

^with

predominantly

^winds

from the east

(±

^{7 m}

S·1) (from

^De

Ruijter

^et

et., 1997).

2.8 Sea surface

salinity

SLFMR maps from

flights

^{at 3}

day

^intervals

(a)

^{- 30}

(d). Strong

^surface

salinity gradients

^are

prominent

in all the maps

with freshwater

«16 psu)

in the channel and

along

the coasts. A transition zone of intermediate

salinity (30-34 psu)

^{marks the}

plume boundary (from Burrage

^et

^aI., 2003).

3.1

Map

^{of the}

study

^{areas, the square}

(a). Muda, (b).

^{Merbok and}

(c).

³⁵

Prai estuaries and coastal ^zones.

3.2 Satellite SPOT

image

^{of the}

study

^areas.

(derived

^{from CRISP- 36}

IKONOS on 31

January

^{2005 at 03:41:18 Local}

Time)

3.3

Map

of the catchments area in Kedah and

Penang.

³⁷

3.4

Geological

map of the

study

^{area in}

Penang region (Source: ^Courtier,

⁴¹

1974).

3.5

Geological

^{map of the}

study

^{area in Kedah}

region (Source: ^Bean,

⁴³

1969).

3.6 Southwest and Northeast ^monsoon

patterns

and wind directions. 47

3.7

Monthly

rainfalls for the

Penang region.

⁴⁹

3.8

Monthly

rainfalls for the Kedah

region.

⁵⁰

3.9 Wind Roses

Summary (1985-2002)

^at station Butterworth for the 51

period

^a.

April,

^b.

May-September,

^c.

October,

d. November-March.

3.10 Annual Wind Roses

Summary

^for

cyclone

studied from 1985-2002 at 52 station Butterworth. The concentric circles in the dashes

represent

the various

percentage frequencies

^{oftime as labeled.} The innermost full circle

represents

^the

percentage

^{occurrence of calm}

(wind speed

s 0.2

m/s),

the value of which is inscribe within the circle. Various

arms radiate from the innermost circle. The total

length

^{of each arm}

represents

^{the total}

percentage frequency

of time the wind blows from the direction concerned. Each arm is subdivided into a line and

rectangles

of different shades and sizes. These

represent

the various classes of

speed

^as

given

^{in the}

key

^scale

(Source: MMS).

3.11 Location of the coastal area under

investigation.

^{The number and 56}

circle

sign

^{shows the location} of stations of field survey ^on 7

April

2002.

Bathymetry

of the coastal

region

^{is also shown in meters.}

3.12

Monthly

^mean and maximum river

discharge (m3/s) hydrographs

^{for 57}

the Muda River between 1974 and 2002 at station Jambatan

Syed

Omar.

3.13

Monthly

^{mean river}

discharge (m3/s) hydrographs

for the Muda River 58 between 2001 and 2002 at Jambatan

Syed

^Omar

meteorological

station.

3.14 The total

monthly

^rainfall

(mm) diagrams

^{for the Muda} River between 58 2001 and 2002 at

Bumbung

^{Lima and}

Pinang Tunggal meteorological

stations.

3.15

Diagram

^of

daily

^river

discharge (m3/s)

^{and river}

^{stage (m)}

^{at station 61}

Jambatan

Syed

^Omar

during

^the months of survey.

3.16 Aerial

digital image

^of

plume boundary intersecting

^{with oceanic 64}

water,

Muda River mouth _area,

captured

^{on 20}

January

^2002.

3.17 Observation maximum tidal

heights (m)

^at Swettenham Pier for the 65 year 2001-2002.

3.18

(a) Map

^of

study

^area with details of the boundaries of the lower 70 Merbok

Estuary

^and

(b)

location of the lower

estuary

^{area under}

investigation.

^{The number and circle}

sign

^{shows the location of}

stations of field survey ^on 10

April 2003,

^{and the arrows} indicates the transects direction.

3.19 Distribution of

monthly

^{mean rainfall at}

Sungai

^Petani

meteorological

⁷¹

station for 20 years

(1975-1995).

xv

3.20

Monthly

^rainfall

histograms during

^the

study

surveys

(2002-2003)

^{at 72}

Sungai

^Petani

meteorological

^station.

3.21 The maximum tidal

heights

observation

(m)

at Station Swettenham 73 Pier for the year 2002-2003.

3.22

(a) Map

^of

study

^area with details of the boundaries of the Prai River 75 mouth and

Penang

Channel and

(b) bathymetry (m)

of the coastal

region

^as the interestarea of surveys

study.

3.23 Aerial

image

^{of river}

plume boundary intersecting

with oceanic

water,

⁷⁶

Penang

^{Strait area,}

captured

^{on 28} October 2001.

3.24 The total

monthly

^rainfall

(mm) diagrams

^{for the} Prai River between 79 2001 and 2003 at Butterworth

meteorological

^stations.

3.25 The total

monthly

^rainfall

(mm) diagrams

for the Prai River between 79 2001 and 2003 at Prai

meteorological

^stations.

4.1 Horizontal distribution of surface

salinity (%0) during high

^{river 92}

discharge

^{surveys on}

(a)

8 November and

(b)

^{17 October 2001.}

4.2 Horizontal distributions of

salinity (%0) during high

^river

discharge

⁹³

survey ^on 17 October at

(a)

^{1.5 m and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.3 Horizontal distributions of

salinity (%0) during high

^river

discharge

⁹³

survey ^on 8 November at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.4 Horizontal distributions of

salinity (%o) during

^{low river}

discharge

⁹⁴

surveys ^on

(a)

⁹ March 2002 and

(b)

⁴

July

^2002.

4.5 Horizontal distributions of

salinity (%0) during

^{low river}

discharge

⁹⁵

survey ^on 17

January

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.6 Horizontal distributions of

salinity (%0) during

^{low river}

discharge

⁹⁶

survey ^on 11 June 2002 at

(a)

^{1m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.7 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during high

^river

discharge

^at

(a)

⁹⁷

transect 1

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

^{survey on 8}

November 2001.

4.8 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during high

^river

discharge

^{at 98}

transect 1

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^on 17

October

^2001.

4.9 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{at 99}

transect 1

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

^{survey on}

17

January

^2002.

4.10 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC) during high

^river

discharge

¹⁰¹

surveys ^on

(a)

²⁵

September

^{2001 and}

(b)

⁷

May

^2002.

4.11 Horizontal distributions of

temperature (oC) during high

^{river 102}

discharge

survey ^on 25 October 2002 at

(a)

^{1m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.12 Horizontal distributions of

temperature (oC) during high

^{river 102}

discharge

^{survey on 7}

May

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.13 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC) ^during

^{low river}

discharge

¹⁰⁴

surveys ^on

(a)

²⁰

January

^and

(b)

^{11 June 2002.}

4.14 Horizontal distributions of

temperature (oC) during

^{low river}

discharge

¹⁰⁵ survey ^{on 20}

January

^{2002 in}

(a)

^{1.5m and}

(b)

^{3 m}

depth.

4.15 Horizontal distributions of

temperature (oC) during

^{low river}

discharge

¹⁰⁵

survey ^on 11 June 2002 in

(a)

^{1m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.16 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during high

^river

discharge

¹⁰⁶

at

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along ^shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^on 25

September

^2001.

4.17 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during high

^river

discharge

¹⁰⁷

at

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^{on 8} November 2001.

4.18 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{at 108}

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey

on 20

January

^2002.

4.19 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{at 109}

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey

on 11 June 2002.

4.20 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm3) during high

^river

discharge

¹¹¹

surveys ^on

(a)

²⁸

July

^{2001 and}

(b)

8 November 2001.

4.21 Horizontal distributions of

density (kgm·3) during high

^river

discharge

¹¹²

survey ^on 28

July

^{2001 at}

(a)

^{1.5 m and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.22 Horizontal distributions of

density (kgm-3) during high

^river

discharge

¹¹²

survey ^on 8 November 2001 at

(a)

^{1m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.23 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm·3) during

^{low river}

discharge

¹¹³ surveys ^on

(a)

⁶

February

^and

(b)

^{6 June 2002.}

4.24 Horizontal distributions of

density (kgm·3) during

^{low river}

discharge

¹¹⁴

survey

^{on 6}

February

^{2002 in}

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.25 Horizontal distributions of

density (kgm·3) during

^{low river}

discharge

¹¹⁵

survey ^on 6 June 2002 in

(a)

^{2 m and}

(b)

^{3 m}

depth.

4.26 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm'3) during high

^river

discharge

^{at 116}

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(cross shore)

survey

on 28

July

^2001.

4.27 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm·3) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{at 118}

(a)

^{transect 1}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(cross shore)

survey

on 6 June 2002.

4.28 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") during high

^river

discharge

¹¹⁹

surveys ^on

(a)

^{8 November 2001 and}

(b)

²⁸

April

^2002.

4.29 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") ^during

^{low river}

^discharge

¹²⁰

surveys ^on

(a)

¹²

January

^and

(b)

^{11 June 2002.}

4.30

Monthly

^mean

suspended

^sediment

(tones/month) hydrographs

^{for 121}

the Muda River between 1976 and 2002

(26 years)

^{at Jambatan}

Syed

^{Omar station}

(Source: DID).

4.31 Muda River

discharge (rrr's")

^versus

suspended

^{sediment loads 122}

(tones

^per

day)

between 1976 and 2002

(Source: DID).

xvii

4.32

Monthly

^mean

suspended

^sediment

(tones/month) hydrographs

^{for 123}

the Muda River

during

^the month of surveys between 2001 and 2002 at Jambatan

Syed

^{Omar station.}

4.33

Diagram

^of

daily

^river

discharge (m3/s)

^and

suspended

^{sediment 124}

(tones/day)

^at station Jambatan

Syed

^Omar

during

^{the months of}

survey.

4.34 Muda River

discharge (m3s·1)

^versus

suspended

sediment load

(ton

¹²⁸

per

day)

for the year of 2001.

4.35 Muda River

discharge (rrr's')

^versus

suspended

sediment load

(ton

¹²⁸

per

day)

for the year of 2002.

4.36 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%o)

ⁱⁿ

spring

tide condition for flood 130

tide,

survey ^{on 17} October

2001,

^and

(b)

^{ebb to} flood tide survey ^on

12

August

^2002.

4.37 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0)

ⁱⁿ

spring

^tide condition survey 132

on 17 October 2001 at

(a)

^{1.5 and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.38 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0)

ⁱⁿ

spring

tide condition survey 132

on 12

August

^{2001 at}

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.39 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0)

in neap tide ^condition for ebb 133

tide, surveyed

^{on 25} October 2001 and

(b)

flood tide survey ^on 7

Apri12002.

4.40 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0)

ⁱⁿ neap tide condition survey ^on 134 25 October 2001 at

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.41 Horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0)

in neap tide condition survey ^on 135 7

April

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1.5 and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.42 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during spring

^tide at transect 1 136

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^{on 17} October 2001.

4.43 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%o) during

^{neap tide at transect 1 137}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^{on 25} October

2001.

4.44 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

ⁱⁿ

spring

^tide condition for 138

(a)

^flood

^tide,

^{survey on 13}

February

^{2002 and}

(b)

^{ebb to flood tide}

survey ^{on 12}

August

^2002.

4.45 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

ⁱⁿ

spring

tide condition 139 survey ^on 13

February

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{1.5 m}

depth.

4.46 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

ⁱⁿ

spring

tide condition 140 survey ^on 12

August

^{2001 at}

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.47 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

^{in neap tide} condition for 141

(a)

^ebb

tide, surveyed

^{on 25}

September

^{2001 and}

(b)

^{flood tide}

surveyed

^{on 7}

April

^2002.

4.48 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

^{in neap} tide condition 142 survey ^{on 25}

September

^{2001 at}

(a)

^{1 and}

^(b)

^{2 m}

^depth.

4.49 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

^{in neap tide condition 143}

survey ^on 7

April

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1.5 and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.50 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during spring

^tide at transect 144 1

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

^{survey on 13}

February

^2002.

4.51 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during

neap tide at transect 145 1

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^{on 25}

September

^2001.

4.52 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3)

ⁱⁿ

spring

tide condition for 146 survey ^on

(a)

¹⁷ October 2001 and

(b)

^{11 June 2002.}

4.53 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3)

ⁱⁿ

spring

^{tide condition 147}

survey ^on 17 October 2001 at

(a)

^{1.5 and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth.

4.54 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3)

ⁱⁿ

spring

^{tide condition 147}

survey ^on 11 June 2002 at

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.55 Horizontal distribution of

density' (kgm-3)

in neap tide condition for

(a)

¹⁴⁸

flood

tide,

survey ^on 6 June 2002 and

(b)

ebb tide survey ^{on 28}

July

2001.

4.56 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3)

ⁱⁿ neap tide condition survey ¹⁵⁰

on 6

February

^{2002 at}

(a)

^{1 and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.57 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3)

in neap tide condition survey 150

on 28

July

^{2001 at}

(a)

^{1.5 and}

(b)

^{2.5 m}

depth

4.58 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm-3) during spring

^tide at transect 1 151

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^on 17 October 2001.

4.59 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm-3) during

^{neap tide at transect 1 153}

(along shore)

^and

(b)

^{transect 2}

(across shore)

survey ^{on 7}

April

2002.

4.60 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") during spring

^{tide at flood}

^tide,

¹⁵⁵

surveyed

^{on 12}

January

^{2002 and}

(b)

^{ebb to} flood tide survey ^on 28

Apri12002.

4.61 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") during

neap tide ^at

(a)

^{ebb to 156}

flood

tide, surveyed

^{on 17}

January

^{2002 and}

(b)

^{flood to ebb tide}

survey ^{on 4}

July

^2002.

4.62 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%0) during strong

wind surveys 157

on

(a)

²⁸

July

^{2001 and}

(b)

¹²

January

^2002.

4.63 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%0) during

weak wind surveys ^on 158

(a)

¹⁷ October 2001 and

(b)

¹²

August

^2002.

4.64 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oe) during strong

wind surveys ¹⁵⁹

on

(a)

25 October 2001 and

(b)

28 March 2002.

4.65 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC) during

^weak wind surveys 159

on

(a)

¹⁷

January

^{2002 and}

(b)

⁴

July

^2002.

xix

4.66 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgm-3) during strong

wind surveys 160

on

(a)

¹³

February

^{2002 and}

(b)

⁷

April

^2002.

4.67 Horizontal distribution of

density (kgrn-3) during

^weakwind surveys ^{on 161}

(a)

⁸ November 2001 and

(b)

¹²

August

^2002.

4.68 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") during strong

wind surveys ^on 162

(a)

²⁵

September

^{2001 and}

(b)

28 March 2002.

4.69 Horizontal distribution of TSS

(mql") during

weak wind surveys ^on

(a)

¹⁶³

17 October 2001 and

(b)

^{6 June 2002.}

4.70 Tide

prediction (m)

^data

during

^the

day

of survey ^on 11

September

¹⁶⁴

2004

4.71 Water level observations

(m)

^{on 11}

September

²⁰⁰⁴

(spring tide).

¹⁶⁴

4.72 Tide

prediction (m)

^data

during

^the

day

of survey ^on 25

September

¹⁶⁵

2004.

4.73 Water level observations

(m)

^{on 25}

September

²⁰⁰⁴

(neap tide).

¹⁶⁵

4.74 Measured current

magnitude (m/s)

^{on 11}

September

^{2004. 166}

4.75 Measured current direction

(deg).

^{on 11}

^September

^{2004. 166}

4.76 Measured current

magnitude (m/s)

^{on 25}

September

^{2004. 167}

4.77 Measured current direction

(deg)

^{on 25}

September

^{2004. 167}

4.78 Distribution of

(a)

the survey ^stations and

(b)

^current

magnitude

¹⁷⁰

(ern/s)

and direction

(deg)

^{at 0.5 m}

depth,

survey ^on 12

August

^2005.

4.79 Distribution of the current

magnitude (ern/s)

^{and direction}

(deg),

¹⁷⁰

survey ^on 12

August

^{2005 at}

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

4.80 Distribution of current

magnitude (em/s)

and direction

(deg)

^{at 3m 171}

depth,

survey ^{on 12}

August

^2005.

4.81 Distributions of

temperature

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

survey ^on 172 12

August

^2005.

4.82 Distributions of

salinity

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

survey ^on 12 173

August

^2005.

4.83 Distributions of

density

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

survey ^on 12 173

August

^2005.

4.84 Vertical distribution of

temperature (oe)

^at

along

^{shore transect 174}

survey

^{on 12}

August

^2005.

4.85 Vertical distribution of

salinity (%0)

^at

along

shore transect survey ^{on 175} 12

August

^2005.

4.86 Vertical distribution of

density (kgm-3)

^at

along

shore transect survey 175

on 12

August

^2005.

4.87

Salinity-density diagrams along

^{the date of} surveys. ¹⁸⁷

4.88 Schematic

diagrams

ⁱⁿ 3D model of the

salinity

distribution in the 195 Muda coastal water for

(a) spring

tide is characterized

by stronger

energy

(bigger arrow),

^{isohaline is closer to} the coastline and the

homogenous pattern

^and

(b)

neap tide is characterized

by

^weaker

energy

(smaller arrow),

^{isohaline is further to coastline} and stratified

pattern.

4.89 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%0)

^and

(b) temperature (oC)

²¹¹

survey ^{on 8} November 2001.

4.90 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%o)

^and

(b) temperature (oC)

²¹¹

survey ^{on 7}

May

^2002.

4.91 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%0)

^and

(b) temperature (oC)

²¹²

survey ^on 12

January

^2002.

4.92 Horizontal distribution of

(a) salinity (%0)

^and

(b) temperature (oC)

²¹³

survey ^on 6 June 2002.

4.93 Horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC)

^{survey on}

(a).

^{17 October 215}

2001 and

(b).

28 March 2002.

4.94 An aerial

digital image

^{over the} Muda coastal water,

showing

^{the 218}

distinct

edge

^of

estuary plume, captured

^{on 28}

July

^{2001. The}

plume pattern

^{was identified}

by

field observation

(TSS) during

similar date

(insert Figure).

4.95

Sequence

^{of aerial}

digital images

^{over the Muda coastal} water, ²²⁰

showing

^{the distinct}

edge

^of

estuary plume, captured

^{on 20}

January

2002. The

plume pattern

^{was identified}

by

field observation

(TSS) during

similar date

(insert Figure).

4.96

Sequence

^{of aerial}

digital images

^{over the Muda coastal}

^water,

²²³

showing

the distinct

edge

^of

estuary plume, captured

^{on 9 March}

2002. The

plume pattern

^{was identified}

by

field observation

(TSS) during

similar date

(insert Figure).

4.97

Sequence

^{of aerial}

digital images

^{over the Muda coastal}

^water,

²²⁵

showing

the distinct

edge

^of

estuary plume, captured

^{on 1}

September

2003.

5.1 Surface horizontal distributions of

salinity (%0) during (a) high

^{river 236}

discharge,

^{on 26 October}

2002,

^and

(b)

^{low river}

discharge,

^{on 23}

March 2003.

5.2 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during high

^river

discharge,

^{on 20 238}

May

^{2003 at}

(a)

^transect

1, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuary.

5.3 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{on 17 239}

June 2003 at

(a)

^transect

^1, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary.

5.4 Surface horizontal distributions of

temperature (oC) during (a) high

²⁴¹

river

discharge,

^on 26 October 2002 and

(b)

^{low river}

discharge,

^on

23 March 2003.

xxi

5.5 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during high

^river

discharge

²⁴²

on 19

May

^{2003 at}

(a)

^transect

1, along estuary

^and

(b)

^{transect 2,}

across

estuary.

5.6 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during

^{low river}

discharge

²⁴³

on 7 June 2003 at

(a)

^transect

i, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

across

estuary.

5.7

Diagram

^{of maximum}

temperature (oC)

^{at station}

Penang Airport

²⁴⁴

during

^{the months} of survey in

(a) May

^and

(b)

^{June 2003.}

5.8 Surface horizontal distributions of

density (kgm·3) during (a) high

^{river 246}

discharge,

survey ^on 26 October 2002 and

(b)

^{low river}

discharge,

survey ^on 22 March 2003.

5.9 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm·3) during high

^river

discharge

^{at 247}

(a)

^transect

t, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuary,

survey ^{on 20}

May

^2003.

5.10 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm·3) during

^{low river}

discharge

^{at 248}

(a)

^transect

^t, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuary,

survey ^{on 7 June} 2003.

5.11 Surface horizontal distribution of TSS

(rnql") during (a) high

^{river 250}

discharge,

^{survey on 26} October 2002 and

(b)

^{low river}

discharge,

survey ^{on 07 June} 2003.

5.12 Surface horizontal distributions of Secchi

depth (em) during (a) high

²⁵²

river

discharge,

survey ^on 26 October 2002 and

(b)

^{low river}

discharge,

^{survey on 22} March 2003.

5.13 Surface horizontal

distributions'

of

salinity (%0) during spring tide,

²⁵³

survey ^on 17 June 2003 and

(b)

^neap

^tide,

^{survey on 7 June 2003.}

5.14 Vertical

distributions;

^of

salinity (%0) during spring

^{tide at}

(a)

^{transect 255}

t, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary,

survey ^on 23

March 2003,

5.15 Vertical distributions of

salinity (%0) during

^{neap tide at}

(a)

^transect

^1,

²⁵⁶

along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary,

survey ^on 7 June

2003.

5.16 Surface horizontal distribution of

temperature (oC) during spring ^tide,

²⁵⁸

survey ^on 17 June 2003 and

(b)

^neap

^tide,

^{survey on 7 June 2003.}

5.17 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during spring

^{tide at}

(a)

²⁵⁹

transect

t. along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary,

survey

on 17 June 2003.

5.18 Vertical distributions of

temperature (oC) during

neap tide at

(a)

²⁶⁰

transect

1, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary,

survey

on 7 June 2003.

'

5.19 Surface horizontal distributions of

density (kgm·3) during spring tide,

²⁶² survey ^{on 17} June 2003 and

(b)

neap

tide,

_survey ^{on 7 June 2003.}

5,20 Vertical distributions of

density (kqrn") during spring

^{tide at}

(a)

²⁶³

transect

t, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary,

survey

on 17 June 2003.

5.21 Vertical distributions of

density (kgm-3) during

neap tide at

(a)

^{transect 265}

1, along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuary,

^{survey on 7 June}

2003

5.22 Surface horizontal distributions of TSS

(rnql") during spring ^tide,

²⁶⁶

survey ^on 22 March 2003 and

(b)

neap

tide,

survey ^{on 7} June 2003.

5.23 Surface horizontal distributions of Secchi

depth (ern) during spring

²⁶⁸

tide,

survey ^on 22 March 2003 and

(b)

neap

tide,

survey ^on 7 June

2003.

5.24 Surface horizontal distribution of

salinity (%0) during strong wind,

²⁶⁹

survey ^on 17 June 2003 and

(b)

^weak

wind,

survey ^{on 23 March} 2003.

5.25 Surface horizontal

distributions'

^of

temperature (oe) during strong

²⁷⁰

wind,

survey ^{on 22} March 2003 and

(b)

^weak

wind,

survey ^on 26

October 2002.

5.26 Surface horizontal distributions of

density (kgm-3) during strong wind,

²⁷¹ survey ^{on 22} March 2003 and

(b)

^weak

^wind,

survey ^on 23 March

2003.

5.27 Surface horizontal distributions of TSS

(mgr1) during strong wind,

²⁷² survey ^on 7 June 2003 and

(b)

^weak

^wind,

survey ^on 26 October

2002.

5.28 Surface horizontal distributions of Secchi

depth (cm) during strong

²⁷³

wind,

_survey ^on 22 March 2003 and

(b)

^weak

^wind,

survey ^on 23

March 2003.

5.29 Distribution of

(a)

^the survey stations and

(b)

^current

magnitude

²⁷⁵

(cm/s)

and direction

(deg)

^{at 0.5 m}

depth,

survey ^on 12

August

^2005.

5.30 Distribution of the current

magnitude (cm/s)

^and

direction (deg),

²⁷⁶

survey ^on 12

August

^{2005 at}

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth.

5.31 Distributions of

temperature

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

^{survey on 277}

12

August

^2005.

5.32 Distributions of

salinity

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

survey ^on 12 278

Aug

^{ust 2005.}

5.33 Distributions of

density

^at

(a)

^{1 m and}

(b)

^{2 m}

depth

survey ^{on 12 278}

August

^2005.

5.34 Vertical distribution of current

magnitude (cm/s)

^at

(a)

^transect

1,

²⁷⁹

along estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuarysurvey

^{on 12}

August

2005.

5.35 Vertical distribution of

temperature (oe)

^at

(a)

^transect

1, along

²⁸⁰

estuary

^and

(b)

^transect

^2,

^across

estuary

survey ^on 12

August

^2005.

5.36 Vertical distribution of

salinity (%0)

^at

(a)

^transect

1, along estuary

^{and 281}

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary

survey ^on 12

August

^2005.

5.37 Vertical distribution of

density (kgm-3)

^at

^(a)

^transect

^{1, along} estuary

²⁸²

and

(b)

^transect

2,

^across

estuary

survey ^on 12

August

^2005.

xxiii