A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science Geoscience with Honours

Tekspenuh

(1)VALUE IN KAMPUNG JERAM GAJAH, LOJING, KELANTAN by. NUR SYAFIQA BT MOHD SABARI. A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science Geoscience with Honours. FACULTY OF EARTH SCIENCE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN 2020. FYP FSB. GEOLOGY AND GEOHERITAGE POTENTIAL.

(2) “I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in our opinion this thesis is sufficient I term of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours”. Signature. :. Name of Supervisor I. : IR ARHAM MUCHTAR ACHMAD BAHAR. Date. :. ii. FYP FSB. APPROVAL.

(3) I declare that this thesis entitled “GEOLOGY AND GEOHERITAGE POTENTIAL VALUE OF KAMPUNG JERAM GAJAH” is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.. Signature. :. Name. : NUR SYAFIQA BT MOHD SABARI. Date. :. iii. FYP FSB. DECLARATION.

(4) In the name of Allah the Almighty, the Most Gracious and Merciful, all praises to Him for giving me strength, health and wills in order for me to finish this Final Year Project report. With His guidance, I managed to complete this report within the time given. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my parents, Mohd Sabari bin Abdul Wahab, Noorizon binti Ahmad and Aishah binti Haron and also to my siblings for their endless love, motivation and support especially for putting their faith in me morally and financially throughout this research. My biggest gratitude is to all of my lecturers especially my supervisors, Ir Arham Muchtar Achmad Bahar and Madam Ainaa’ Mardhiah binti Hassin for their dedication in mentoring me continuously towards completion of this research.. Their. dynamism,. vision,. sincerity. and. motivation. have. deeply. inspired me. It was a great privilege to works with them. I am also indebted with my fellow mapping partners, Mas Asyiqim, Nur Syazana binti Md Saliman, Thilageswaren A/L M. Velu, Muhammad Khairul Hakim bin Helmi and En. Khairul Aizuddin for their dedication, supports and knowledge throughout 12 days of mapping. Not to forget, a warm gratitude to all of my special friends, Korizan bin Jalil, Muhamad Azmin bin Mustafa, Nur Farina binti Roslan, Mahirah binti Mahather and Nur Farieza binti Juhari for their understanding, memories and iv. FYP FSB. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

(5) limits. I also would like to thank my classmate for their knowledge, attention and supports in making sure I successfully completed my final year project. Last but not least, my gratitude goes to each and every one who had contributed towards the completion of this project. Nur Syafiqa binti Mohd Sabari.. v. FYP FSB. times during my weakest hour. Their support is really pushing me towards my.

(6) JERAM GAJAH, LOJING, KELANTAN. ABSTRACT. Geological heritage is described as an applied scientific field focusing on a distinctive, different and representative geosite. This discipline supports geology science. There are incredible geological phenomena and geomorphological features that create our Earth more fascinating and can become attractions of a location, state, or country. Lojing area possess many unique geological features such as karst landscape, fossil and amazing structures that contribute to educational purposes. However, Lojing had experienced changes in land use due to agriculture factor which exposed the geological features towards threats. The study area for this research is located at Lojing, Gua Musang, Kelantan with coordinate N 4˚ 43’ 52.9” and E 101˚ 46’ 0.89”. The 5x5km2 study area is surrounded by heavy forests and plantations. The highest elevation of the study area is 520m while the lowest elevation is 180m.This study focuses on general geology and geoheritage potential value of Kampung Jeram Gajah. The objectives of the research are to produce an updated map of Kampung Jeram Gajah, Lojing and to determine the geoheritage potential value. The geology of the study area was determined by carrying out geological mapping to construct the geological map. There are three types lithology found which are quartzite, marbleized limestone and mudstone. In this study, geomorphosite assessment is used to determine the ranking for the geosites. Evaluation of the potential value of geoheritage in the study area was achieved by assessing the rating of geomorphosite. These parameters are considered to contribute the potential or failure of the geosites. As a result, suggestions to preserve and conserve the geological resources are made in future.. vi. FYP FSB. GEOLOGY AND GEOHERITAGE POTENTIAL VALUE OF KAMPUNG.

(7) GAJAH, LOJING, KELANTAN. ABSTRACT. Warisan geologi digambarkan sebagai medan saintifik yang diterapkan dengan geosit tersendiri, berbeza dan mewakili. Disiplin ini menyokong sains geologi. Terdapat fenomena geologi yang luar biasa dan ciri-ciri geomorfologi yang menjadikan Bumi kita lebih menarik dan boleh menjadi daya tarikan lokasi, negeri atau negara. Kawasan Lojing mempunyai banyak ciri geologi yang unik seperti landskap karst, struktur fosil dan menakjubkan yang menyumbang kepada keperluan pendidikan. Walau bagaimanapun, Lojing telah mengalami perubahan dalam penggunaan tanah disebabkan oleh faktor pertanian yang mendedahkan ciri-ciri geologi terhadap ancaman. Kawasan kajian untuk kajian ini terletak di Lojing, Gua Musang, Kelantan dengan koordinat N 4˚ 43 '52.9 "dan E 101˚ 46' 0.89". Kawasan kajian 5x5km2 dikelilingi oleh hutan dan perladangan yang berat. Peningkatan tertinggi kawasan kajian ialah 520m manakala ketinggian terendah ialah 180m. Kajian ini memberi tumpuan kepada geologi umum dan nilai potensi geoheritage Kampung Jeram Gajah. Objektif penyelidikan adalah untuk menghasilkan peta terkini Kampung Jeram Gajah, Lojing dan untuk menentukan nilai potensi geoheritage. Geologi kawasan kajian ditentukan dengan menjalankan pemetaan geologi untuk membina peta geologi. Terdapat tiga jenis litologi yang dijumpai iaitu quartzite, batu kapur marmar dan batu lapis. Dalam kajian ini, penilaian geomorphosite digunakan untuk menentukan kedudukan untuk geosit. Penilaian nilai potensi geoheritage di kawasan kajian telah dicapai dengan menilai penilaian geomorphosite. Parameter ini dianggap menyumbang potensi atau kegagalan geosit. Akibatnya, cadangan untuk memelihara dan memelihara sumber-sumber geologi dibuat pada masa akan datang.. vii. FYP FSB. GEOLOGI DAN GEOWARISAN NILAI POTENSI KAMPUNG JERAM.

(8) LIST OF TABLES. xii. LIST OF FIGURES. xiii. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. xv. LIST OF SYMBOLS. xvi. CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Background. 1. 1.2 Study Area. 3. 1.2.1 Location. 3. 1.2.2 Road Connection/Accessibility. 7. 1.2.3 Demography. 7. 1.2.4 Land use. 9. 1.2.5 Social Economic. 9. 1.3 Problem Statement. 10. 1.4 Objective. 11. 1.5 Scope of study. 11. 1.6 Significance of study. 12. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEWS. 13. 2.1 Introduction. 13. 2.2 Regional Geology and Tectonic Setting. 13. 2.3 Stratigraphy. 20. viii. FYP FSB. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

(9) 23. 2.5 Historical Geology. 24. 2.6 Research specification. 26. CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES. 31. 3.1 Introduction. 31. 3.2 Materials/Equipment. 32. 3.3 Methodology. 33. 3.3.1 Preliminary studies. 33. 3.3.2 Field Studies. 33. 3.3.3 Laboratory work. 38. 3.3.4 Data Processing, analysis and interpretation. 40. 3.3.5 Research flowchart. 41. CHAPTER 4: GENERAL GEOLOGY. 42. 4.1 Introduction. 42. 4.1.1 Accessibility. 42. 4.1.2 Settlement. 44. 4.1.3 Forestry. 44. 4.1.4 Traverse and Observation. 44. 4.2 Geomorphology. 46. 4.2.1 Geomorphological Classification. 46. 4.2.2 Topography. 46. ix. FYP FSB. 2.4 Structural Geology.

(10) 55. 4.2.4 Weathering. 58. 4.3 Stratigraphy. 61. 4.3.1 Lithostratigraphy. 63. 4.3.2 Quartzite. 65. 4.3.3 Marbleized limestone. 67. 4.3.4 Mudstone. 69. 4.4 Structural Geology. 72. 4.4.1 Joint. 72. 4.4.2 Fault. 74. 4.4.3 Mechanism of structure. 77. 4.4.4 Historical geology. 78. CHAPTER 5: GEOHERITAGE POTENTIAL VALUE OF KAMPUNG JERAM GAJAH. 79. 5.1 Introduction. 79. 5.2 Geoheritage. 80. 5.3 Geomorphosite assessment. 80. 5.4 Geoheritage Potential Value in study area. 83. 5.4.1 Gua Batu Kapur. 83. 5.4.2 Petrified wood. 87. 5.4.3 Fossils found. 89. x. FYP FSB. 4.2.3 Drainage pattern.

(11) 93. CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION. 94. 6.1 Conclusion. 94. 6.2 Recommendation. 95. REFERENCES. 96. xi. FYP FSB. 5.5 Level of significance.

(12) NO.. TITLE. PAGE. 1.1. Total population in Kelantan district. 8. 3.1. Function of equipment. 32. 3.2. A method for the geosite and geomorphosite assessment. 35. 4.1. Classification of topographic units. 47. 4.2. Stratigraphic column of Gua Musang Formation. 61. 4.3. Stratigraphic column of study area. 71. 5.1. Geoheritage Analysis Result. 81. 5.2. Level of Significance. 93. xii. FYP FSB. LIST OF TABLES.

(13) NO.. TITLE. PAGE. 1.1. Map of Kelantan state. 5. 1.2. Basemap of study area. 6. 2.1. Geological map of Kelantan. 15. 2.2. Bentong – Raub Suture Zone and the radiolarian chert block. 17. 2.3. Evolution of Palaeo Tethys Ocean. 19. 2.4. Permo – Triassic stratigraphic correlation. 21. 4.1. Unpaved road for accessibility in study area. 43. 4.2. Unpaved road accessibility to collect mapping data. 43. 4.3. Traverse and Observation map. 45. 4.4. Geomorphology in study area. 48. 4.5. 500 m quartzite ridge in study area. 48. 4.6. Geomorphology hilly landform with karst. 49. 4.7. Denudational hilly landform and erosion. 50. 4.8. Karst landscape in study area. 51. 4.9. Weathered karst landscape. 51. 4.10. Tin map. 53. 4.11. Landform map. 54. 4.12. Types of drainage pattern. 55. 4.13. Drainage pattern map in study area. 57. 4.14. Physical weathering. 59. 4.15. Chemical weathering. 60. 4.16. Biological weathering. 60. 4.17. Geological map of study area. 64. 4.18. Quartzite hand specimen. 65. 4.19. Marbleized limestone specimen. 67. 4.20. Mudstone hand specimen. 69. 4.21. Systematic joint on shale interbedded mudstone. 73. xiii. FYP FSB. LIST OF FIGURES.

(14) Rose diagram of joint in study area. 73. 4.23. Satellite imaginary for lineament analysis. 75. 4.24. Lineament of study area. 76. 4.25. Fault mechanism. 77. 5.5. Karst landscape. 83. 5.6. Pillars formed inside the cave. 84. 5.7. Huge stalagmites formed inside the cave. 85. 5.8. Stalactites form in the upper part of cave. 85. 5.9. Holes or windows formed due to soluble process. 86. 5.10. 500 m above sea level where the cave was located. 86. 5.11. Group mapping standing in front of the cave. 87. 5.12. Location of petrified wood. 88. 5.13. Hand sampling of petrified wood. 88. 5.14. Thin section of callixylon wood. 89. 5.15. Mollusc fossil found in study area. 90. 5.16. Trace fossil found in study area. 90. 5.17. Plant fossil found in study area. 91. 5.18. Plant fossil found in study area. 91. 5.19. Bivalves found in study area. 92. xiv. FYP FSB. 4.22.

(15) E. East. GIS. Geographic Information System. GPS. Global Positioning System. KM. Kilometre. N. North. NW. North West. PPL. Plane Polarized Light. XPL. Cross Polarized Light. W. West. xv. FYP FSB. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

(16) %. Percentage. σ. Shear stress. ʹ. Minutes. ʺ. Seconds. ˚. Degree. xvi. FYP FSB. LIST OF SYMBOLS.

(17) INTRODUCTION. 1.1 General Background Geological heritage is described as an applied scientific field focusing on a distinctive, different and representative geosite. This discipline supports geology science. Therefore, a study of general geology and geoheritage in Lojing, Kelantan is conduct to understand the Earth processes and to analyze the potential heritage value based on geosite evaluation. Geological map is defined as the specially made map that shows geologic features of the study area. The geological features that can be shown through these maps include structural geology, lithology boundaries, the areas covered in the research and others. Varieties of rocks unit are presented in the map by using different code colors for each lithology. Other than that, geological map can display various degrees of contour lines which indicate the subsurface topographic trends of the strata. This research is required to produce a detailed geological map of the study area with the scale 1; 25000. This is because, by producing the detailed geological map, it is easy for other researchers to get the updated information of the study area.. 1. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 1.

(18) sites or areas of significant scientific, educational, cultural or esthetic value (Geological Society of America, 2012). Scientific and educational value refers to geological features and landscapes, distinctive rock or mineral types, unique or unusual fossils, or other geological features that are important to education and research. Geoheritage sites of cultural significance are places where geological characteristics or landscapes played a role in cultural or historical events. Aesthetically significant geo-heritage sites include landscapes that are visually appealing due to their geological features or processes. Many geoheritage sites can be tourist destinations and offer local and regional economic benefits, (Geological Society of America, 2012). In addition, geoheritage is also a fundamental part of the natural heritage, containing the special places and objects that play an important role in our understanding of the history of the earth, for example, the rocks, minerals, fossils and landscape. Moreover, geoheritage represent important aspect for geotourism development. Geologically, Malaysia has many geological characteristics from all kinds of naturally beautiful landscapes, fossils, minerals, all kinds of rocks that have occurred through its long and complex geological history. Malaysia is rich in nature with hills, mountains, rivers, seas, calcareous (karst and caves) that have their own unique privilege. Langkawi Island, for example, which consists of many geological heritage and is identified as a tourist destination due to natural beauty attraction. Kelantan State in Malaysia has many different and interesting geological sites and features that have geo-heritage and geotourism potential. Gua Musang is an urban,. 2. FYP FSB. Geoheritage is defined as a generic but descriptive term that applies to geological.

(19) major districts in Kelantan. Gua Musang has its own attraction for example, flora and fauna which capable of stimulating the existing heritage value. Moreover, the uniqueness of limestone karst in Gua Musang area shows scientific value from geological side and information. The location of study area for final year project was done at area of Kampung Jeram Gajah, Lojing, Kelantan. Lojing or Lojing Highlands is a hill village located in Kelantan, Malaysia's Gua Musang constituency. It is located on the Second East-West Highway right next to Cameron Highlands in Pahang. Lojing Highlands is located near Cameron Highlands, Pahang, at the foot of the Main Range (also known as the Titiwangsa Range). Mostly, the Lojing area is covering by tropical rainforest in the highlands. 1.2 Study Area The research was conducted at Gua Musang district, at Kampung Jeram Gajah area. The research was conducted within box of 5x5km² and the box covered approximately 25 km per square. Based on base map in Figure 1.1, a few features can be identified such as river and farm road. a. Location The study area for this research is located at Lojing, Gua Musang, Kelantan with coordinate N 4˚ 43’ 52.9” and E 101˚ 46’ 0.89”. Lojing or Lojing Highlands is a hill village in Kelantan, Malaysia's Gua Musang constituency. It is located in Pahang, right next to Cameron Highlands, along the Second East-West Highway. In addition, Lojing is 3. FYP FSB. district and governmental constituency in southern Kelantan, Malaysia. It is one of the.

(20) The 5x5km2 study area is surrounded by heavy forests and plantations. The highest elevation of the study area is 520m while the lowest elevation is 180m.. 4. FYP FSB. located in the south-western corner of Kelantan State with an area size of 1817 sq. km..

(21) FYP FSB Figure 1.1: Map of Kelantan State. This map shows the region of study area which is situated in Gua Musang region. (Source: Nor Fadhilah Kamaruzzaman, 2016). 5.

(22) FYP FSB Figure 1.2: Basemap of study area at Kg. Jeram Gajah, Lojing. 6.

(23) Gua Musang is located in the southern part of Kelantan, bordered by the Pahang, Terengganu and Perak state boundaries. Kuala Lumpur – Gua Musang Highway connects Gua Musang and can be accessed from Merapoh – Gua Musang Road. The study area can be evaluated from Jeli via Dabong – Gua Musang Road. The research area can be access with the help of good accessibility. c. Demography Kelantan covers an area of 15,0999km² and is located in the northeastern part of Peninsular Malaysia. Kelantan is bounded to the north by some ration of southern Thailand, to the west by Perak, to the south by Pahang, and to the south by Terengganu. Kelantan consists of ten administrative areas, namely Kota Bharu, Gua Musang, Machang, Tanah Merah, Pasir Mas, Pasir Puteh, Bachok, Jeli, Kuala Krai and Tumpat. Hilly landscapes are found in the southern part of Kelantan. The Titiwangsa Mountain separates them. The regional geology is characterized in plain downstream by fertile coastline. Paddy development, rubber, oil palm, tropical foods and hardwood govern the stream valley. Furthermore, the main streams include Sungai Nenggiri, Sungai Lebir, Sungai Golok, Sungai Kelantan, Sungai Kemasin, Sungai Semerak, Sungai Pergau, Sungai Pengkalan Chepa and Sungai Pengkalan Datu. The distribution of population in Kelantan state is endorsed with many factors, which are categorized to size of district, the economic opportunities and the territory. All of these components determine the population that migrates to 7. FYP FSB. b. Road Connection.

(24) FYP FSB. the district. From Table 1.1 the rate population growth in Gua Musang is changing from 103,300 in year of 2010 to 114,500 in 2014. This shows that rapid development provides employment opportunities for residents and outsiders that contributed to population growth in the district of Gua Musang.. Table 1.1: Total population in Kelantan district. Year District. 2010. 2011. 2012. 2013. 2014. Bachok. 142,100. 146,000. 149,900. 153,800. 157,700. Kota Bharu. 509,600. 522,000. 534,500. 547,200. 560,100. Machang. 101,300. 103,900. 106,400. 109,000. 111,700. Pasir Mas. 212,000. 217,300. 222,800. 228,300. 233,800. Pasir Puteh. 134,200. 137,700. 141,100. 144,600. 148,200. Tanah Merah. 133,400. 136,700. 140,000. 143,300. 146,700. Tumpat. 137,200. 177,700. 182,200. 186,800. 191,400. Gua Musang. 103,300. 106,000. 108,800. 111,700. 114,500. Kuala Krai. 120,800. 123,700. 136,500. 129,500. 132,400. Jeli. 48,000. 19,300. 50,600. 51,900. 53,200. TOTAL. 1,641,900. 1,690,300. 1,772,800. 1,806,100. 1,849,700. (Source: Jabatan Perangkaan Penduduk Negara, Negeri Kelantan, 2014). 8.

(25) Land use involves the management and modification of natural or wasteland environments in built environments such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures and managed forests. It was also defined as the total arrangements, activities and inputs undertaken by people in a certain type of land cover. Land-use activity in Gua Musang is dominated by rubber plantation and palm plantation, and due to economic improvements in Gua Musang; land-use development is changing rapidly. In the study area, forestry, rubber plantation and oil palm plantation are the main land use area. e. Social Economic Gua Musang is going through a rapid development. The positive impact of urbanization in the district of Gua Musang offers local and outsider job opportunities. In the study area, the plantation is divided into two types which is oil palm and rubber plantation. Rubber plantation is the main contributor to the social economic activity in the district of Gua Musang. In several areas, the plantations are well developed and the growth of the plantation offering job vacancy to local people, whether to work in the estate or in the factory.. 9. FYP FSB. d. Land use.

(26) There are a few topics that concern the area of study. The geological map in the Gua Musang area is on a large scale in 1987, which is not too detailed in the geological context. Hence, it is important to update geological map in smaller scale, in order to give new information and data in one specific area which will provide significant contribution in understanding geological history. On the other hand, the Earth is dynamic and there is an unexpected change in Earth process that causes the geologic map data would not be same like before. Geo-heritage sites serve the public interest. Geoconservation has grown from a focus on science and education geosite protection to a wider discipline that also recognizes the comprehensive intrinsic, esthetic, cultural and ecological values of geodiversity and geographic heritage. However, there is a lacking of geoconservation set due some threats such as environmental changes, illegal logging and local threats. This more holistic approach, which brings together natural and cultural elements of the landscape, offers opportunities to better integrate geoconservation into environmental policies and achieve the goals and functions of biodiversity. Therefore the research is conducted to collect as much data as possible in the Lojing area to enable the determination of geoheritage potential value.. 10. FYP FSB. 1.3 Problem Statement.

(27) The main objectives of this research: 1. To produce a geological map of study area in 1:25000 scale. 2. To determine the potential and heritage value in Lojing area.. 1.5 Scope of Study This research is concerned with producing the detailed geological map of the study area as fieldwork was carried out to obtain the data. The data includes lithology, structural geology, the geomorphology and the paleontology of the study area. From fieldwork, the geological map can be update from the collected data and the data was transfer into software such as ArcGIS Software. Furthermore, this research also is focusing on valuing and conserving nature or heritage value in Lojing area, Gua Musang, Kelantan and concerned with the geodiversity and biodiversity as both plays important roles in education towards society. Besides education, geoheritage deliver benefits to people at different scales. Recreation and tourism were also the most frequently identified benefits related to beauty and scenery. In geology context, it helps in giving data regarding geologic structures, the occurrence and history as Earth is dynamic.. 11. FYP FSB. 1.4 Objectives.

(28) The fieldwork in the study area was conducted for two purposes, which are to produce a detailed geological map with the scale 1; 25000 and to determine the geoheritage potential value in study area. It is important to update the geological map by providing the latest data about lithology, geological structures and geomorphology as Earth is changes time by time. Other than that, geo-heritage is defined as a standard but descriptive term applied to geologically characterized sites or areas of significant scientific, educational, cultural, or aesthetic value. It also helps to raise awareness and understanding of the full range of direct and indirect benefits that local, national and global communities can receive from natural heritage sites by conducting this research. In addition to biodiversity conservation, examples of benefits include flood prevention, tourism opportunities, cultural and spiritual values, and food and water supply.. 12. FYP FSB. 1.6 Significance of Study.

(29) LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The literature review known as body of the research. It is available from a variety of sources such as books, journals, articles, internet and other scientific resources that related and relevant to certain issue, study area also theory. The purpose of literature review is to identify theoretical and scientific knowledge and it is made for better understanding about the research paper. Geology is used to study about the evolution from the past to the present. Generally, geological studies are based on desktop study as the data is collected from the previous studies, books, and scientific reports. All the information is collected and surveyed to provide a better understanding of general geology in Kelantan, especially in the area of study. 2.2 Regional Geology and Tectonic Setting According to Hutchison (1989), Peninsular Malaysia is a key part of the Eurasian plate, and Sundaland is the south-eastern part of Asia. Geologically, Peninsular Malaysia has three belts, Western, Central and Eastern belts. Each of these belts are different in geology and tectonic history reported by Hutchinson, C, (1989).. 13. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 2.

(30) marine are typical formation during Permian to Triassic. The Triassic formations of Semantan and Semanggol are studied from sedimentology and paleontology and are recognized as deep-sea sediments. In general, Malaysia is part of eastern Malaysia and the tectono-stratigraphic terrain of Sibumasu. Tectonically, Peninsular Malaysia is part of the Eurasian Eastern Plate, north of the active subduction arc zones of Sunda (Kamar Shah Ariffin 2012). Lojing, Gua Musang is located in the Kelantan region of southern and part of the Central Belt of Kelantan. Lojing was part of the Gua Musang Group that recently proposed the definition of argillite-carbonate-volcanic deposited during the Permo-Triassic period. It consists of argillaceous, carbonate, volcanic or pyroclastic faces and is divided into four formations: Aring Formation, Telong Formation, Gua Musang Formation and Nilam Formation (Kamal Roslan Mohamed, et al., 2016).. The general geological map of Kelantan is shown in Figure 2.1. This geological map shows the lithology varieties in Kelantan state consisting of igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rocks well developed in Kelantan state in a north-south trend. Geologically, these three types of rock are classified by region, consisting of granite rock, sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks, unconsolidated sediments, and extrusive rocks. The rocks are dominated by igneous rock. Localization of joint and fault geological features in sedimentary rocks while distribution of granite rocks in western (Main Range Granite) and eastern borders of. 14. FYP FSB. In Peninsular Malaysia, according to Metcalfe, I., & Azhar, H. (1994), deep.

(31) Malaysia, 2003).. Figure 2.1: Geological map of Kelantan. (Source: Department of Minerals and Geoscience Malaysia, 2003).. 15. FYP FSB. Kelantan State's Boundary Range Granite (Department of Minerals and Geoscience.

(32) tectonic border between Peninsular Malaysia's western and central belts. Hutchison (1975) called it the row of ophiolite Bentong-Raub. The Bentong – Raub Suture Zone (Metcalfe, 2000) stretches from Tomo, southern Thailand south through Bentong and Raub to Melaka (Tjia, 1989). It is an expansion of Thailand's Nan-Uttaradit suture. The suture area stretches south to Lancangjian, Changning – Menglian, Southwest China Yunnan Province, and northern Thailand, Chiangmai (Metcalfe, 2000). The primary sea of Palaeo-Tethys is represented by the Lancangjian, Changning – Menglian, Chiangmai and Bentong-Raub suture zones. Peninsular Malaysia's Bentong-Raub suture zone is located between the Terrane of Sibumasu and the Terrane of East Malaya (Indochina). The terrane of Sibumasu was connected to the map of Cimmeria and the terrane of East Malaya connected to the map of Indochina and South China. An ocean called Paleo-Tethys divided the blocks of Sibumasu and East Malaya. The Palaeo-Tethys opening was created when the North and South China, Indochina and Tarim plate sliver rifted during Devonian from Gondwanaland. The Palaeo-Tethys decreased when the Sibumasu terrane collided during the Triassic with the terrane of East Malaya or known as Indochina.. 16. FYP FSB. Furthermore, Hutchison (1973) proposed the Bentong-Raub line as the main.

(33) FYP FSB Figure 2.2: Bentong-Raub Suture Zone and the radiolarian chert blocks localities. (Source: Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 2013). 17.

(34) Palaeo-Tethys Ocean in the Bentong-Raub Suture Region. The Palaeo-Tethys were well known to the Early or Middle Devonians. The Palaeo-Tethys was an ocean where MidFrasnian (Late Devonian) deposited the first chert of radiolars. The Palaeo-Tethys grew larger during the Carboniferous period. In Late Permian, the oceanic crust of PalaeoTethys collapsed under the East Malaya Terrane and subdued eastward Mitchell (1977). The Palaeo-Tethys became a shallow ocean during the Early Triassic period, dominated by scattered calcareous fossils (Fontaine et al., 1995). The closure of Palaeo-Tethys and Bentong was completed during the Triassic period and the Bentong-Raub Suture Zone was formed.. 18. FYP FSB. Radiolarian chert blocks are the remains of oceanic sediment found in the.

(35) FYP FSB Figure 2.3: Evolution of the Palaeo-Tethys based on radiolarian cherts (modified after Metcalfe, 2000). A. Opening of Palaeo-Tethys during Devonian, B. Palaeo-Tethys became wider ocean during Carboniferous, C. The Palaeo-Tethys subducted under the East Malaya / Indochina Terrane, D. Collision between Sibumasu and East Malaya terranes during Late Permian- Triassic. (Source: Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 2013).. 19.

(36) There are two formations in Gua Musang area which is Gua Musang Formation and Gunung Rabong Formation. According to Yin (1965), Gua Musang Formation consists of argillaceous and calcareous rock intercalation with volcanic and arenaceous rock in the south of Gua Musang. The units extend from the north and south of Kelantan to the north of Pahang. The presence of fossils such as ammonoids and pelecypods show Permian to Middle Triassic age. In stratigraphy column, Gunung Rabong Formation is uncomformably overlain the Gua Musang Formation and is named after Gua Musang town in the south of Kelantan. Gunung Rabong Formation consist of predominantly arenaceous and argillaceous sequence with subordinate calcareous, volcanic and rudaceous bands in the Gua Musang area of southern Kelantan.. 20. FYP FSB. 2.3 Stratigraphy.

(37) FYP FSB Figure 2.4: Permo-Triassic stratigraphic correlation chart of Central Belt Peninsular Malaysia. (Source: Metcalfe and Hussin, 1995). Aw (1975) discovered the Permo-Triassic rock consisting of argillite rocks, calcareous stone and conglomerates in the west to Gua Musang, Nenggiri and Kuala Betis. Most of these units of rock are covered with tuff. Yin (1965) stated that the upper boundary of Gua Musang Formation is covered by the Gunung Rabong Formation. Towards the west of the town of Gua Musang, the rock range of Kuala Betis is related and renowned as the Gua Musang Formation, in conformity with the conglomerate-sandstone sequence Aw (1974), Abdul Rahim Samsudin, (1994). This grouping was known as the Gunung Ayam conglomerate, interpreted as a basal conglomerate Aw (1974), representing oldest units of Gua Musang Aw (1974), (Abdul Rahim et.al., 1994). The conglomerate was unconformable on Paleozoic metamorphic rocks. The basal conglomerate was uncovered, and the Bentong-Raub Suture surrounded the westernmost degree of formation, where it was faulty or uncomfortable on older rocks.. 21.

(38) Gua Musang Formation rocks in the east area. According to Foo (1983), it is recommended that the Telong Formation be the same as Gua Musang Formation as Nilam Marble's deposition environment and age was equivalent to Gua Musang Formation's carbonate. Jasmi (1992) was mapped as far south as the Kuala Tembeling area by the Nilam Marble and Telong Formation. Gua Musang Formation is a transitional overlay on Semantan Formation in the Kuala Lipis region Kamal (1996). Limestone in the area of Kota Gelanggi–Gunung Senyum was dated from Middle Triassic to Late Triassic and taken from Kuala Tembeling to Triassic Limestone. They are presented in the Gua Musang Formation as Triassic progression. Moreover, The Gua Musang Group is known as the newly proposed stratigraphic unit for the Northern Central Belt PermoTriassic Sequence, Peninsular Malaysia, Gua Musang Formation, Telong Formation, Aring Formation and Nilam Marble Formation.. The close association between the formation of Gua Musang, Telong formation, Aring Formation, and Nilam marble reflects the alterations in the lateral facies between these formations. Similar lithology to the formation of Gua Musang in Felda Aring, for example, is called Aring Formation, while those in Sungai Telong are called Telong Formation (Aw, 1990). Mohamed and Leman (1994) and later Mohamed (1995) explained that these lateral facial changes can be collected within the same group as long as they are deposited in shallow marine environments.. 22. FYP FSB. Besides, Nilam Marble and Telong Formation sediments were parallel to.

(39) Kelantan State is located in the north-eastern corner of the Malaysian peninsula. The main compressional force affects the land mass of Peninsular Malaysia. The effects of this force in the region and locally are formed fold and fault. The local geological structures formed in sedimentary rocks whereas in granite rocks fault and joint occur. The dominant structure at N-S to NW-SE has been formed in the past through the orogenesis process Department of Minerals and Geoscience Malaysia, (2003). When a continental plate crumbles and is pushed upwards to form one or more mountain ranges, an orogenic or orogenic belt develops, this involves a collective series of geological processes called orogenesis. Orogeny is the main mechanism by which on continents mountains are built. According to Hamblin, W.K. (1994), when the rock is uplifted, folded or fractured using tectonic activity, the joints are formed by strain. A joint is a fracture in geology that divides rock into two sections that move away from each other. A joint does not involve shear removal and forms when tensile stress breaks its threshold. Tija, (1986) stated dominant strike and fold axis in Peninsular Malaysia occurs mostly in the Gemas and Semantan Formation which controlled Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, since the state of Kelantan is situated on the central belt of Peninsular Malaysia, significant structural zones have appeared, known as the Bentong-Raub Suture Zone. The Bentong-Raub Suture Zone is well exposed to. 23. FYP FSB. 2.4 Structural Geology.

(40) Bentong-Raub Road. The suture is an roughly 13 km broad area of deformed rocks consisting of schist, phyllite, meta-sedimentary rocks, sandstone, cherts, olistostrome and melange Tjia & Almashoor, (1996). Metcalfe (2000) expected the suture to be approximately 20 km wide. The Bentong-Raub Suture Zone is noticeable by a belt of melange and olistotrome consisting of blocks or clasts of cherts, sandstone, calcareous, conglomerate, interbedded sandstone and mudstone and tuffaceous mudstone embedded in a mudstone sheared matrix. Clast sizes diverge from a few cm to hundreds of meters. The most important clasts or blocks are cherts which are considered to represent the oceanic sedimentary rocks.. 2.5 Historical Geology Gua Musang is blessed with unique morphological features such as hills and surrounded in the limestone areas by karstic morphology, which has many geological features. Limestone landscape or karst topography also is well distributed in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. Geomorphologically, the Kelantan state can be divided into four types of landscape which are the mountainous areas, hilly areas, plain areas and coastal areas (Tanot et al., 2001). All these landscape types occur in the district of Gua Musang except the coastal areas that form only in the northern part of Kelantan.. 24. FYP FSB. road-cuts along Gua Musang-Cameron Highland Road, Karak Highway, and.

(41) the Main Range Granite was between 200 and 230 million years ago from the late Triassic age. Geologically, the rock units of the Kelantan were divided into four types, dividing them into unconsolidated sediments, extrusive rocks that are volcanic rocks, granite, and sedimentary rocks or metasedimentary rocks. The granite rock in Kelantan is classified by two main bodies, the Main Range and the Boundary Range. Unconsolidated sediments are deposits formed by secondary sedimentation of previously weathered rocks and repositioning of their fragments, or by solution chemical and biochemical precipitation. They have not been compacted and lithified. The unconsolidated sediments form the coastal part widening from the Thailand boundary to the Terengganu border, conquering the northern area of Kelantan state. The sediment that represents the flat alluvial plain is in Quaternary age and overlies the granite bedrock. Meanwhile, in the central zone and on the eastern side of the state bordering the Boundary Range granite, the extrusive rocks formed an elongated body at the north south. They are Permian in age (Kelantan's Geology and Mineral Distribution Map, 2000). For the distribution of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks, 51% of the state's land surface is covered by sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks from Ordovician to the Cretaceous age (Kelantan's Geology and Mineral Distribution Map, 2000). These rocks covered the Kelantan State's north-south central part.. 25. FYP FSB. According to the Minerals and Geoscience Department of Malaysia (2003),.

(42) There are outstanding geological landscapes, incredible geological phenomena, and geomorphological features that create our Earth more fascinating and can become attractions of a location, state, or country. Geological resources that possess their own attractions can be potential geological heritage, a geological concept that emphases on unique, distinctive and figurative geological characteristics (ProGEO, 2011) with numerous values such as scientific, educational, esthetic, recreational, cultural, economic, religious and functional values (Gray, 2004, Gray 2005; GSA 2012). Malaysia is one of the countries in which its geoheritage resources are actively conserved and developed. Komoo (2004) said early efforts to conserve geological resources in Malaysia were initiated in the Third Malaysian Plan (1976-1980) by providing for the need to protect geological memorials and landscape. Systematic determinations to endorse the conservation of geological heritage began with the establishment of the Malaysian Geological Heritage in 1996. Most research works were subsequently conducted to study and describe many geo-heritage sites of maintenance and growth. According to Predrag and Mirela (2010), Brocx and Semeniuk (2011) certain conditions like the distinctive occurrence, rarity and representativeness of certain geological features also need to be measured when identifying sites of geological significance. Some potential geoheritage resources, as well as their geodiversity Gray (2004) and scope Brocx and Semeniuk (2007), are classified. 26. FYP FSB. 2.6 Geoheritage.

(43) eight elements which are rock, mineral, fossil, land, landscape, process, soil, and other geological resources. Apart from that, geological heritage can also be classified according to its scope, such as mineralogical site, petrological site, structural site, stratigraphic site, geomorphological site, hydrogeological site and others that related to the site characteristics Brocx and Semeniuk (2007), Pedrag and Mirela (2010). The scales of geological characteristics comprise of regional scale (or mega scale ; coverage of 100 km to 100 km), large scale (or macroscale ; coverage of 10 km to 10 km), medium scale (or mesoscale ; coverage of 1 km to 1 km), small scale (or microscale ; coverage of 10-100 m to 10-100 m), fine scale (or leptoscale ; coverage of 1 m to 1 m), and very fine scale (coverage of 1 mm × 1 mm or smaller which means less coverage), Brocx and Semeniuk (2007). Furthermore, according to Brocx and Semeniuk (2007), the levels or rank of geosite significance must be allocated to the ranking of geosite resources such as international, national, state, regional and local resources. Geological heritage assessment must take place as a tool for geoconserving and managing potential geoheritage resources, using the SWOT analysis to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the area's potential geo-heritage resources. A site such as geosite, geomorphosite, geotope, geological monument, geopark, national park, and the World Heritage Site (Brocx and Semeniuk 2011; ProGEO 2011) is also recommended and proposed by the geo-heritage assessment. For the meantime, Wimbledon (1996) proposed the term "geosite" 27. FYP FSB. based on certain categories. Gray (2004) separated geodiversity context into.

(44) concept in Malaysia by defining "any site that has geology characteristics with a feature or land form that contains a major geodiversity component that shows a high geodiversity value." Whereas, ProGEO (2011) defined "geosite" as "a crucial location that displays significant geological features with an intrinsic value of scientific interest that enables us to understand Earth's changes process." It is particularly relevant to focus on the distinctive character of sites of special geomorphological interest in addition to the term "geomorphosites" (Panizza, 2001). "Geotope" is one of the terms that Sturm (1994) make known to as "distinct geosphere parts of incredible geomorphological and geological interest”. Moreover, important geological feature, the "geological monument" means "any feature of special scientific or educational value that forms the essential foundation of geological education, research and reference. The feature is regarded by the geological community as worthy of protection and preservation "(Australian Geological Society, 2006). In addition, a "geopark" is a nationally protected area that includes a number of geological heritage sites, rarity, or aesthetic appeal. These Earth Heritage Sites are part of an overall concept of protection, education and sustainable development (UNESCO 2006). Another terms related to the geoheritage conservation, being National Park and World Heritage Site. The IUCN and the WCMC (1994) have well defined a ' national park ' as a ' natural land or sea area selected to protect the biological principle of one or more ecologies for present 28. FYP FSB. referring to "any site with substantial geodiversity." Komoo (2004) presented the.

(45) future. generations,. eliminate. exploitation. or. profession. for. the. determinations of designating the area and offer a basis for opportunities for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, visitors, All of which must be environmentally and culture-friendly. Besides that, "UNESCO World Heritage Site" is "any cultural or natural site in the world that is considered so exclusive and important that it is part of our worldwide heritage and should be well-kept for generations to come. Then, Geo-heritage and geotourism are two important aspects of human appreciation of the geological resources of the Earth. Geoheritage refers to the elements of the Earth that we value, whereas geo-tourism is a type of tourism based on aspects of the Earth's heritage. Geotourism is defined as a type of tourism based on geological characteristics that can attract and enjoy visitors (Newsome and Dowling, 2005). The Kelantan state has many captivating natural and geological characteristics. The essential part of this research is to update the geological map of study area with scale 1:25000 and to identify the potential of study area as a geoheritage site through geological and geoheritage mapping. This research was held at Kampung Jeram Gajah, Lojing. In the study area, systematic geo-heritage studies were handled to determine their potential through inventory, characterization, classification, evaluation and evaluation. Lojing needs to be developed as a meaning of the study to attract local people and tourists and make Lojing one of the geoheritage resources.. 29. FYP FSB. and.

(46) to be used as geotourism sites. Promoting geotourism in this area is one way of refining the socio-economic level of local community. Geoheritage also includes the cultural, landscape, scientific and aesthetic value of the natural geological characteristics that must be taken care of for generations to come. Geoheritage can also be used for the purposes of recreation, education and science.. 30. FYP FSB. Some geological characteristics have values of geo-heritage and potential.

(47) MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES 3.1 Introduction There are several materials and methods used in order to complete the process in collecting data and the important details for geological mapping and geoheritage potential value in Lojing area that will help in this investigation. If the appropriate materials and methods are used, the research will be easier. 3.2 Materials The mapping is carried out in the study area to determine the location of geological characteristics and their recent geological conditions. The mapping was conducted to gather detailed information including geomorphology, lithology, stratigraphy and geology of the structure. During mapping, the rock samples (at least 5 rock samples or more in size of 15 cm) were collected.. 31. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 3.

(48) FYP FSB. Table 3.1: Function of equipment Equipment. Functions. Base map. The. data. and. information. of. the. study. area. is. gain. through base map before going to field Global. The coordinate and the track also outcrop at the location. Positioning. is record and mark in the GPS.. System (GPS) Geologic. Use to take the sample of rocks and acts as tools to real. Hammer. scale for the rock samples.. Brunton. The. Compass. bedding is measure by using Brunton Compass.. Hand Lens. The. strike. Hand. closely. and. dip. lens. is. including. of. used. fossils,. geological. to. structures. examine. minerals. and. the other. such. rocks. as. sample. materials. in. tiny scale. Sample Bags. The rocks sample are place in the Sample Bag which will label. with. coordinate. of. location. where. the. samples. is. taken. Measuring Tape. The length and width of the outcrops are measured at the field.. Field Notebook. To write and record all the data.. Camera. Acts. as. tool. to. geomorphology view.. 32. snap. the. outcrop. photo. and.

(49) 3.2.1 Preliminary Research A preliminary study was the first step to carry out this research. It is acts as a desktop study which the data about the study area was being obtained. There are various sources of reference especially from books, articles, journals, geological maps and internet sources. By using this method, it can support to explain the research topic. In general, preliminary research commonly emphasizes geological heritage studies, general geology, geomorphology, sedimentology, paleontology, and Gua Musang area stratigraphy. Before mapping the study area, the preliminary study must be resolved. All the information is gathered from previously published literatures. The information is done by reviewing the journals, reports, articles, books and thesis and the literature review will help to understand more about the study area and can be used as a reference for conducting the research. 3.2.2 Field studies Field studies means the observations and interpretation of the study area by using some tools and equipment in order to collect data. The observation of the locality and the study area was record before traversing the study area. After traversing, the data were transfer into ArcGIS Software to update map version. Field studies also include the observation of geomorphology, present lithology and structural geology in the study area. It also includes rock sampling to evaluate the relationships between facies.. 33. FYP FSB. 3.2 Methodologies.

(50) geosite evaluation. The analysis of the landscape was conduct based on procedure to study the heritage value at the place. First, the study area that consist interesting structures need to be identified. Secondly,. the. geosite. was. evaluated. using. geomorphosite. assessment. (Kubalikova, 2013). Geomorphosite assessment is a concept for assessing the importance of the geological and geomorphological sites for geotourism purposes. Third, data were recorded including facies associations, sedimentary structures and fossils. Thus, the interpretation of the geoheritage can be determined through geosite evaluation.. 34. FYP FSB. Moreover, in determining the geoheritage potential value in Lojing, it relies on the.

(51) FYP FSB. Table 3.2: A method for the geosite and geomorphosite assessment for the geotourism purposes (Lucie Kubalikova, 2013).. 35.

(52) 36. FYP FSB.

(53) 37. FYP FSB.

(54) Petrographic is the subdivision of geology that studies about rock mineral and rock systematic classification. The classification of rocks is the basics in the field of mineral and geoscience because each rock type has different physical strength and different mechanical properties. Laboratory work is compulsory to produce thin section from rock samples of the study area. Thin section is a laboratory preparation to identify the rock's mineral composition and texture under a microscope. The preparation of thin section of rock samples is proposed to conduct petrographic analysis to define rock mineral composition and texture. Both mineral composition information and rock texture are very important for the classification of rocks and the interpretation of rock formations environment. The found samples of rock and fossils were collected from the study area for further identification and investigation. The fossils were cleaned and prepared for further study after the collection process. Besides that, for petrography analysis and microscopy studies, the hand specimen rocks and microfossils will undergo a thin section. It will be further interpreted under the microscope when the thin section has been prepared. This was done to identify the mineralogy and petrography of the rock samples based on mineral types. In preparing the thin section, there are few steps. First, to prepare the thin section, the rock samples were cut first using a rock cutting machine. Then the petrography analysis was carried out by the specific method of the thin section.. 38. FYP FSB. 3.2.3 Laboratory works.

(55) was to use slab saw to cut the rock slab into thin pieces. One side of it was polished after it was cut and thinned to get the flat and smooth surface. It was attached to the thin glass slide after that. Then the slide was attached to the machine where the grinding action will further thin the specimen. Because of the thinning process, it was removed from the machine when the specimen was almost transparent and the thickness correction was. FYP FSB. The procedure must be followed when preparing the thin section. The first step. done by hand grinding on a glass plate until the correct thickness was about 0.03 mm. The specimen was washed and dried after that. Next, a thin glass cover slip covered the surface of the specimen. The thin section was then ready under the microscope to be analyzed and observed. The brief process was illustrated as shown in Figure 3.1.. Rock was cut into thin pieces using slab saw. One side of rock was polished. The slide will be attached to machine. The slide undergo grinding action. 39. Grinding by hand. The surface of specimen will be wash, dry and coverec. Ready to be analyze.

(56) At this stage, the data collected from the sites will be processed, analyzed and interpreted in order to obtain all the information about the geological features in the study area. The mineral content, textures, grain sizes and fossil content data have been identified and classified in their respective classification for petrographic analysis. The name of the mineral was based on its characteristics. The rock name may also be accurately named based on the mineral content. Analysis and interpretation of the lithology and stratigraphy data at the study area help to recognize the previous depositional environment and the event of tectonic movement that happened in the study area. In the meantime, for structural analysis, it is based on the formation of faults, joints, strike and dip measurement from the study area. Georose or Stereonet were used to interpret the direction of force that acts on the study area. Then, the analysis of the fossil found was used to analyze the fossils based on fossilization process type, classification and naming. The fossil collected could then be identified and classified based on kingdom, phylum, class, family, order, genus, and species. In this research, data collected from geological mapping such as coordinates, lithology, structural geology, geomorphology, and landform drainage patterns were also interpreted and analyzed. Other than that, the identification of the study area is based on the important geological and geomorphological features at study area. This information will help identify the geology of the structure and describe the geoheritage values that are adequate for the area of study. Furthermore the ArcGIS software is used to generate. 40. FYP FSB. 3.2.4 Data processing, analysis and interpretation.

(57) geographic data compilation. 3.2.5 Research flow chart. Topic selection. Preliminary studies: Reference information. Collecting data. Laboratory experiment. Analysis of data. Data interpretation. Thesis writing. 41. FYP FSB. the geological map at the research area. ArcGIS also helps with map analysis and.

(58) GENERAL GEOLOGY. 4.1 Introduction General geology basically discussed about the information, data collection and analysis that measured during field mapping observation. It is related to geomorphology, lithology, petrography, stratigraphy, structural geology and historical geology. All of the information of the data was obtain by geological mapping method at the study area. A geological map is produced to show the distribution of rock units, the type of rocks, the occurrence of geological features and age relationship between the rocks.. 4.1.1. Accessibility. Gua Musang is located at the south part of Kelantan and is connected by Gua Musang – Merapoh highway. The study area can be accessed through Gua Musang – Lojing Highway by transportation network. Furthermore, accessibility is available through unpaved road which help to access the study area. Field observation also can be access by walking around at study area.. 42. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 4.

(59) FYP FSB Figure 4.1: Unpaved road for accessibility in study area.. Figure 4.2: Unpaved road accessibility to collect mapping data.. 43.

(60) Settlement. Basically there is no settlement in Kampung Jeram Gajah, a location mostly covered by oil palm plantation. By observation, Kampung Jeram Gajah only names the area and does not refer to any village. 4.1.3. Forestry. The study area is surrounded by 50% of forestry. Study area is dominated by oil palm plantation. Most of the forests in this region have been irrigated, turned into oil palms and some have been planted as rubber plantations. Moreover, the oil palm and rubber plantations in the area also contribute to the economic factors surrounding the area of Pos Blau.. 4.1.4. Traverse and Observation. Traverse is a method in the field of geological mapping which normally associated with the field work of measuring angles and distances between points on the ground also involve placing waypoints or station along a line or path. Field observation and mapping is conducted to gather all of the information of the study area. The Global Positioning System (GPS) plays an important role during traverses and observation by marking the geological features and some hand sampling is collected by analysis and interpretation.. 44. FYP FSB. 4.1.2.

(61) FYP FSB Figure 4.3: Traverse and station map of the study area.. 45.

(62) Geomorphology is the study of soil types, their mechanisms, shapes and sediments on the surface of the Earth. The study includes looking at landscapes to see how the surface of earth processes, such as wind, water and ice, could affect the landscape. Landforms are formed by erosion and deposition, as rock and sediment are worn away by these earth-surface processes and transported and deposited in different locations. The different climatic conditions produce different forms of soil. Geomorphology provides better interpretation about origin and earth evolution from the past. 4.2.1. Geomorphological classification The geomorphology of the study area is discussed on the basis of. geomorphological conditions such as topography, drainage pattern, river morphology and vegetation of the study area. In determining the geomorphology of study area, there were several methods use which is field observation, interpretation of topography map and satellite imaginary. 4.2.2 Topography Topography defines the physical features of an area of land. These features typically include natural formations such as mountains, hills, rivers, lakes and valleys. Topography can also be discussed in relation to the different elevations of the area using a topographic map. According to (Hutchison, 2009), the. 46. FYP FSB. 4.2 Geomorphology.

(63) The table shows the class of topographic units with average elevations.. TOPOGRAPHIC UNITS. MEAN ELEVATIONS (M ABOVE SEA LEVEL). Low Laying. <15. Rolling. 16-30. Undulating. 31-75. Hilly. 76-300. Mountainous. >301. Table 4.1: Classification of topographic units (Source: Hutchinson, 2009). All the categories include low laying, rolling, undulating, hilly and mountainous can be seen through field mapping. Mean elevations show an important role in topographic unit determination. As the study area is located at Lojing area, the highest elevation is 500m while the lowest elevation is 180m.. According to (Hutchison, 2009), by mentioning the table above, this situations show that mostly the study area is covered by hilly landform unit and mountainous area. Mountainous area in field observation is referring to the quartzite ridge which consists 500m of elevation.. 47. FYP FSB. topographic system has a number of categories dependent on mean elevations..

(64) FYP FSB. Hilly landform. Figure 4.4: Geomorphology at the study area shows hilly landform with different contour interval range.. Quartzite ridge. Figure 4.5: 500m of quartzite ridge in study area.. 48.

(65) Based on geomorphological analysis, geomorphology of the study area can also be defined by the origin of denudation. In geology, denudation includes processes that cause the surface of earth to be swept away by moving water, ice, wind and waves, leading to a reduction in altitude and land also landscape relief. There are few geomorphic units under denudation origin which are residual hill, residual mount, piedmont zone, denudational hill and valley. Through observation, the hilly areas in field can be expressed as denudational hilly landform due to the differential weathering and erosion process occurred from time to time. This landform covers about 50% of the study area with elevation range 180 m to 300 m.. Karst topography. Figure 4.6: Geomorphology of hilly landform with karst topography in study area.. 49. FYP FSB. a. Denudational origin.

(66) Figure 4.7: Denudational hilly landform caused by erosion process and weathering in study area. b. Karst morphology A karst landform is a geological structure created by water drainage in the soil on the surface of the earth. The term "karst" refers to a distinctive type of landscape those results from water dissolving on soluble rock such as limestone, dolomite and gypsum. The study area comprises with predominantly karst topography. Karst topography is the landform that is produced by chemical weathering process of carbonate rocks which is mainly limestone rock that contains more than 70% of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and driven by surface water and subsurface water.. 50. FYP FSB. Weathering process.

(67) Figure 4.8: Karst landscape in study area.. Karst landscape Figure 4.9: Weathered karst landscape which surrounded by highly vegetation.. 51. FYP FSB. Karst landscape.

(68) rock in the study area formed a karst landscape represented by the presence of a holes or cave formation. From observation, acidic rainwater, consisting of carbon dioxide, reacts chemically to the production of carbonic acid, a weak acid that reacts with carbonate minerals in rocks. At the same time, this process weakens the rock and removes chemically weathered materials. These processes are also influenced by temperature, pressure, pH and ion concentration. Generally, in terms of study area, the geomorphology has been modified by oil palm plantation and others excavation. Thus, the landform of study area consists; i.. Denudational hilly landform.. ii.. Karst landform.. 52. FYP FSB. The chemical weathering of the dissolution or carbonation process on carbonate.

(69) FYP FSB Figure 4.10: Tin map of the study area.. 53.

(70) FYP FSB Figure 4.11: Landform map of the study area. 54.

(71) Drainage pattern or drainage system is the distribution of the streams, rivers and lakes in the drainage basin. They are directed by the topography of the earth, whether a particular area is dominated by hard or soft rocks and geology of the land. There are several types of drainage patterns which are dendritic, parallel, trellis, rectangular, angular and contorted as shown in Figure. Figure 4.12: Types of drainage pattern (Thornbury, 1969). By interpreting the topography map as well as the field observation, the study area. shows two. different. types. of dendritic. and. rectangular. dendritic drainage patterns. These two patterns of drainage have a different geological significance.. 55. FYP FSB. 4.2.3 Drainage pattern.

(72) A dendritic drainage pattern is the most common form and looks like the branching pattern of tree roots and is characterized by irregular branching in all directions with the tributaries joining the main streams at all angles. Through map observation, the west part of the study area is covered by dendritic drainage pattern which the stream is flowing downward to south direction apart from Sungai Brooke which located upward in north direction. Apart from that, Sungai Brooke is cover about 10% in study area. In relation, this pattern also indicated that the area had a weak zone, such as the occurrence of major faults. b. Rectangular dendritic A rectangular dendritic drainage system is a pattern in which the main streams and their tributaries show several right-angle bends and display parts of approximately the same length and it is indicative of streams following significance fault or joint systems splitting the rocks into rectangular blocks. By observing the map, this pattern covered about 50% of the study area on east part which the stream is flowing downward to south direction, as it is under structural controls such as faulting and folding that occurred during tectonism.. 56. FYP FSB. a. Dendritic.

(73) FYP FSB Figure 4.13: Drainage pattern map of study area. 57.

(74) Weathering is a process of breaking up rocks into a number of conditions that disintegrate and decompose the properties of rocks. There are three types of weathering process happened which are physical or known as mechanical weathering, chemical weathering and biological weathering. Those three weathering process shows different characterization that could change the condition of rock. a. Physical weathering Physical weathering is a term used in science that refers to the geological cycle of rocks breaking apart without altering their chemical composition.. b. Chemical weathering Chemical weathering is a subsequent chemical reaction disintegration of rocks. Oxidation, hydrolysis and carbonation are included in these reactions. These processes either form or dissolve minerals, thereby changing the mineral composition of the rocks.. c. Biological weathering Biological weathering relates only to weathering caused by activities of living things or organism such as microbes - humans, plants, fungi, and micro-organisms. For example, burrowing animals like earthworms, moles can contribute to biological weathering. 58. FYP FSB. 4.2.4 Weathering.

(75) which are fresh, discolored, disintegrated and decomposed. Fresh means no visible sign of the weathering of the rock material while discolored refers to a change in the color of the original rock material. Then disintegrated means that the rock is weathered to the soil condition and the mineral grains are not decomposed and the decomposed term meaning is the same as disintegrated, but some mineral grains are decomposed. Through observation during field mapping, there are some places where those three types weathering process occurred at study area.. Figure 4.14: Physical weathering on the surface of rocks.. The Figure 4.14 shows the physical weathering on the rock surface. When the rock is exposed to weathering agents such as wind and water, the rock can lose it cohesion properties and tend to break into pieces. The degree of weathering: discolored.. 59. FYP FSB. In addition, the degree of weathering can be interpreted by several terms.

(76) FYP FSB Figure 4.15: Chemical weathering on the rock surface. The Figure 4.15 shows the chemical weathering where the original color of the rock has been altered due to chemical reaction between weathering agents. The degree of weathering: discolored.. Figure 4.16: Biological weathering on rock surface. The Figure 4.16 shows the biological weathering process happened on shale outcrop which the roots of plants coming out from the cracks or joint set on the outcrop surface. The degree of weathering: disintegrated.. 60.

(77) Stratigraphy is used to determine the explanation, correlation and interpretation of rocks and sediments on Earth. In general, the stratigraphy column in Table 4.2 shows the sequence of rock units in the study area from the oldest to the youngest unit. The oldest unit is located at the bottom of the stratigraphy column, while the youngest unit is located at the top. The stratigraphic column of the study area is studied and revised from previous research. Table 4.2: Stratigraphic column of Gua Musang Formation (Source: Yin, 1965). Based on the newly proposed stratigraphic unit of The Gua Musang Group, Yin (1965) mapped the Gua Musang formation in South Kelantan – North Pahang to describe Middle Permian to Late Triassic argillite, carbonate and volcanic facies in the Gua Musang area. According to Lee (2004), Gua Musang Formation was taken from the original name known as Gua Musang, South Kelantan and the age for this formation is 61. FYP FSB. 4.3 Stratigraphy.

(78) with volcanic as well as some arenaceous involvement. The argillaceous facies consisting of shale, siltstone, mudstone, slate, and phyllite are the dominant facies in the formations of Gua Musang and Telong and occur in the Aring Formation and Nilam marble as interbeds or lenses. Exposed carbonate bodies have produced extraordinary karst topography such as steep-sided trending N-S calcareous hills and paving. Carbonate is the dominant facies in the marble of Nilam and as extensive facies in the formation of Gua Musang, forming beds or lenses in the formations of Telong and Aring. The northern limestone bodies are metamorphosed to marble, while the southern bodies still show differentiation between micrites and allochems. During the age of middle Permian to late Triassic, the platforms undergo deposition process of argillite, carbonate and volcanic facies. Argillite, carbonate and pyroclastic or volcanic in South Kelantan to North Pahang are defined as late Triassic argillite, carbonate and volcanic facies and depositional environment at the time of middle Permian. Based on the observation at field, the lithology that can be found are metamorphic unit, marbleized limestone unit and mudstone unit.. 62. FYP FSB. Middle Permian to Late Triassic consisting of argillaceous and calcareous rocks mixed.

(79) Lithostratigraphic classified. based. on. units their. are. rock. lithological. bodies,. which. characteristics. are and. described. and. stratigraphic. relationships. Lithostratigraphic units are the fundamental units of geological mapping. The distribution of rock types in the study area has been recognized during field mapping. The rocks are identified as quartzite unit, limestone unit and mudstone rock unit. The geological map of the study area is shown in Figure 4.16. The geological. map displays. the rock lithology, structural. geology,. cross section and stratigraphy column that help in understanding the geology of study area. The stratigraphy column of the study area refers to the Gua Musang Formation which has been studied by previous researchers. Technically, rock description is required to define the types of lithology. The description of the rock is such an interpretation or an image of the rock as seen with detailed information seen by naked eyes or by an analysis of the petrography. The instrument, such as the optical microscope and the hand lens, is used to assess the individual grains that compose the rock.. 63. FYP FSB. 4.3.1 Lithostratigraphy.

(80) 64 Figure 4.17: Geological map of the study area. FYP FSB.

(81) Quartzite is a metamorphic rock made up of large quartz minerals that have been metamorphosed by sandstone. The location of quartzite outcrop is located at N 04˚ 40’ 33.3” and E 101˚ 43’ 59.9”. The quartzite rock is milky white in color and may experience weathering process. This quartzite unit formed when it undergoes the high temperature regional metamorphism, as when sandstone is buried, quartzite is formed and the series heated into the solid rock. These conditions recrystallize the grains of sand and the cement of silica tat bind them together.. Figure 4.18: Quartzite hand specimen. 65. FYP FSB. 4.3.2 Quartzite unit.

(82) Sample: Quartzite. FYP FSB. Location: N 04˚ 40’ 33.3” E 101˚ 43’ 59.9”. Rock type: Metamorphic rock. Description of mineral. 2 mm. 2 mm. Plane Polarized Light (PPL). -. Cross Polarized Light (XPL). Quartz: In the PPL observations of white, XPL white - gray - black, low relief, low pleochroism, anhedral crystalline form, 91% abundance.. -. Silica clay:. In white - gray PPL, in XPL gray - black, relief - pleochroism -. crystalline forms, 8% abundance. -. Opaque mineral: In the PPL and XPL observations appear dark, present spread in incision. 1% abundance.. 66.

(83) Limestone is a sedimentary rock that composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and under metamorphism condition, the calcite mineral in limestone recrystallizes to form a rock that a mass of interlocking calcite crystal which. is. known. as. marble.. The location of the outcrop is located at N 04̊ 41’. 26.2” and E 101˚ 45’ 33.3”. The marbleized limestone is greyish-black in color mixed with some impurities and may undergo weathering process. The presence of limestone in study area is related to karst topography and cave formation as it is soluble in acidic water or groundwater. Limestone is contain mostly calcite mineral and produce hiss sound when react with hydrochloric acid (HCL).. Figure 4.19: Limestone with calcite veins hand specimen. 67. FYP FSB. 4.3.3 Marbleized limestone unit.

(84) FYP FSB. Sample: Marbleized Limestone LocationN 04̊ 41’ 26.2” E 101˚ 45’ 33.3”.. Rock type: Sedimentary rock. Description of mineral. 2 mm. 2 mm. Plane Polarized Light (PPL). -. Calcite:. Cross Polarized Light (XPL). In the light white PPL observations, the pink XPL - green, 1-2. directions, has very low relief, strong pleochroism, 45% abundance. -. Carbonate clay: In the case of white-brown PPL, in the pink XPL - brown, relief - pleochroism - crystalline forms, 55% abundance.. 68.

(85) The mudstone consists of a combination of silt and clay and is deposited and lithified where no lamination can be found. Mudstones form when very fine-grained clay particles are deposited in water. They settle tiny particles down to the bottom of the oceans, lake floors or lagoons, or even in rivers. As the mud is buried and compacted by overlying sediment, the water is pressed out and turned into mudstone. The outcrop is located at N 04̊ 43’ 44.8” and E 101̊ 45’ 06.0”. The mudstone unit was found in grey color and may undergo highly weathering process.. Figure 4.20: Siliceous mudstone hand specimen.. 69. FYP FSB. 4.3.4 Siliceous mudstone unit.

(86) FYP FSB. Sample: Siliceous Mudstone Location: N 04̊ 43’ 44.8” E 101̊ 45’ 06.0”. Rock type: Sedimentary rock. Description of mineral. 2 mm. 2 mm. Plane Polarized Light (PPL). -. Quartz:. Cross Polarized Light (XPL). In the PPL observations of white, XPL white - gray - black, low relief,. low pleochroism, anhedral crystalline form, abundance of 10% -. Silica clay:. In white - gray PPL, in XPL gray - black, relief - pleochroism -. crystalline forms, 87% abundance. -. Opaque mineral:. In the PPL and XPL observations appear dark, present spread. in incision. 3% abundance.. 70.

(87) Eon. Era. Period. Epoch. Upper. Mesozoic. Description. Mudstone: fine-grain, grey in color. Triassic Middle. Phanerozoic. Lower. Paleozoic. Lithology. Permian Upper. Middle. 71. Limestone: Marbleized limestone, have calcite minerals, light to dark grey in color Quartzite: Consist of silica content, milky white in color.. FYP FSB. Table 4.3: Stratigraphic column of the study area.

(88) Structural geology is the study of the processes that lead to geological structures being formed and how they affect rocks. Generally, geological structures are the result of the strong tectonic forces that exist in the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, make deep faults, and raise mountains. Typically, geological structure is to use current rock geometry measurements to uncover information on the history of rock deformation and to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. Based on the study area, two types of structural geology were identified which were joints and faults. Joint analysis was carried out taking field trend and frequency readings and plotting using Georose software. This software will show the direction of force acting on rocks. In the meantime, the fault analysis was carried out by a lineament analysis. 4.4.1 Joint There are two types of joint which are systematic and non-systematic joint. Systematic joint have been found at study area. The joint is classified as systematic joint due to their break in regular form. Joints resulted from brittle fracture of a rock body as the result of tensile stresses and compression stresses. When this happens, the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress.. 72. FYP FSB. 4.4 Structural Geology.