A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours

Tekspenuh

(1)by. NUR ALYA SHALINA BINTI ROSS KENEDY. A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours. FACULTY OF EARTH SCIENCE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN. 2020. FYP FSB. GEOLOGY AND DETERMINATION OF LAND COVER CHANGES AND LAND USE POTENTIAL OF LOJING, GUA MUSANG USING GIS AND REMOTE SENSING.

(2) I declare that this thesis entitled “GEOLOGY AND DETERMINATION OF LAND COVER CHANGES AND LAND USE POTENTIAL OF LOJING, GUA MUSANG BY USING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING” is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.. Signature. : _____________________. Name. : NUR ALYA SHALINA BINTI ROSS KENEDY. Date. : _____________________. i. FYP FSB. DECLARATION.

(3) “I/We hereby declare that I/we have read this thesis and in our opinion this thesis is sufficient in term of scope and quality for the award of the Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours”. Signature. : ……………………….. Name of Supervisor 1. : DR WANI SOFIA BINTI UDIN. Date. : ……………………….. Signature. : ……………………….. Name of Supervisor 2. : ……………………….. Date. : ……………………….. ii. FYP FSB. APPROVAL.

(4) First of all, I would like to extend my outmost gratitude to Allah SWT for giving me strength of knowledge and wisdom throughout the completion of this Final Year Project (FYP).I would also like to thank Dr Wani Sofia binti Udin, Dr Nursufiah bte Sulaiman and Dr Zamzarina binti Sulaiman as the coordinator of FYP of Faculty of Earth Science for giving me such valuable opportunity to carry out this FYP. Moreover, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Wani Sofia binti Udin as my supervisor for her genuine apprehension, encouragement, patience and guidance whose expertise and knowledge were generously shared which resulted to the success of this FYP. It is an honor to work under her supervision.My acknowledgment also extends to my beloved lecturer, Sir Arham Muchtar Achmad Bahar for he’s never ending motivation and dedication in guiding me achieves my research objective especially for geological mapping. I also would like to thanks to Pak Arham in helping my friends and I to complete our geological mapping. Above all, I am indebted to my beloved parents and family for their untiring love, support and motivation in doing this FYP.. I would like to express my deepest thanks and appreciation to my friends who have helped me in terms of time and energy during the process of completing my research especially Ahmad Shafie bin Kamarin, Luqman Hakim Al-Hafiz bin Saari, Muhammad Amir bin Mat Nuri, Athirah binti Tariq Umar and Nur Syazana binti Saliman. Without their help I wouldn’t be able to finish the research. Special thanks to my best friends, Saidah Izzati binti Mohd Shariffuddin for her support, sharing her knowledge, ideas and important information during this period of FYP which leads to the completion of my thesis in given time. Also thank you to Thilageswaran A/L Velu for his support for me.. A very special thanks to Universiti Malaysia Kelantan staff Encik Mohd Khairul Aizuddin and Encik Fatrio Hudaya that was involved in helping me to run laboratory works and helping me during geological mapping in order to complete our traverse. iii. FYP FSB. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

(5) ABSTRACT. Land cover change information is a very important and useful source for planners in land use studies. Moreover, determination of land use potential by considering capability of the land other characteristics provides an important data source for regional planning studies. Remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) is a very useful tool to detect land cover changes. Lojing had experienced changes in land use terms due to increased socio-economic activities, particularly in agriculture and logging in the Lojing highlands. The study area is located in Lojing, Gua Musang which is along the highway Lojing-Cameron Highland with coordinate of E101 ° 48’ 49.62’’, N 4° 49’ 31.26’’. The study area covered almost 25 km2 which include palm oil plantation, rubber tree plantation and reserved forest. The study focused on general geological and specifically on the land cover changes and potential of Lojing, Gua Musang. The objectives of the research are to produce an updated map and to determine of land use changes and land use potential of Lojing, Gua Musang. The geology of the study area was determined by carrying out ground mapping to construct geological map. The study area is mostly covered by 3 types of lithology which are quartzite, granite and meta-sedimentary rocks. The difference in the study area coverage is because Landsat has a low spatial resolution of 30 m. The change in land use can be determined with the aid of satellite imageries. In this research, Landsat 4-5 TM satellite imageries were used for determining land used changes for two different time interval of year 2009 and 2019 respectively. By revealing the existing environmental characteristics of the study area (topography, geology and climate), optimal land usage was determined according to the data. The land use potential map of the Lojing area was created using suitability maps for the optimal land usage. As a result, suggestions for the appropriate land use in the Lojing area were made. Keywords: Geographic information system, land cover changes, land use potential, Lojing, remote sensing (RS). iv. FYP FSB. GEOLOGY AND DETERMINATION OF LAND COVER CHANGES AND LAND USE POTENTIAL OF LOJING, GUA MUSANG USING GIS AND REMOTE SENSING.

(6) ABSTRAK. Maklumat perubahan perlindungan darat adalah sumber yang sangat penting dan bermanfaat bagi perancang dalam kajian penggunaan tanah. Selain itu, penentuan potensi penggunaan tanah dengan mempertimbangkan keupayaan ciri-ciri tanah yang lain memberikan sumber data penting untuk kajian perancangan serantau. Penderiaan jarak jauh (RS) dan Sistem Maklumat Geografi (GIS) adalah alat yang sangat berguna untuk mengesan perubahan perlindungan tanah. Lojing telah mengalami perubahan dalam istilah penggunaan tanah disebabkan oleh peningkatan aktiviti sosio-ekonomi, terutamanya dalam pertanian dan pembalakan di tanah tinggi Lojing. Kawasan kajian terletak di Lojing, Gua Musang yang terletak di sepanjang lebuh raya Lojing-Cameron Highland dengan koordinat E101 ° 48 '49.62' ', N 4 ° 49' 31.26''. Kawasan kajian meliputi hampir 25 km2 termasuk ladang kelapa sawit, ladang pokok getah dan hutan simpanan. Kajian ini memberi tumpuan kepada geologi umum dan khususnya mengenai perubahan tanah dan potensi Lojing, Gua Musang. Objektif penyelidikan adalah untuk menghasilkan peta terkini dan untuk menentukan perubahan penggunaan tanah dan potensi penggunaan tanah Lojing, Gua Musang. Geologi kawasan kajian ditentukan dengan menjalankan pemetaan tanah untuk membina peta geologi. Kawasan kajian kebanyakannya diliputi oleh 3 jenis lithologi iaitu batuan quartzite, granit dan meta-sedimen. Perbezaan liputan kawasan kajian adalah kerana Landsat mempunyai resolusi spasial yang rendah iaitu 30 m. Perubahan penggunaan tanah boleh ditentukan dengan bantuan imageri satelit. Dalam kajian ini, imej satelit Landsat 4-5 TM digunakan untuk menentukan perubahan tanah yang digunakan untuk dua selang masa yang berlainan bagi tahun 2009 dan 2019 masing-masing. Dengan mendedahkan ciri-ciri alam sekitar sedia ada kawasan kajian (topografi, geologi dan iklim), penggunaan tanah yang optimum ditentukan mengikut data. Penggunaan potensi peta kawasan Lojing dibuat dengan menggunakan peta kesesuaian untuk penggunaan tanah yang optimum. Akibatnya, cadangan untuk penggunaan tanah yang sesuai di kawasan Lojing telah dibuat. Kata kunci: Sistem maklumat geografi, Lojing, penderiaan jarak jauh (RS), penetapan perubahan tanah, potensi penggunaan tanah. v. FYP FSB. GEOLOGI DAN PENETAPAN PERUBAHAN TANAH DAN PENGGUNAAN TANAH POTENSI LOJING, GUA MUSANG MENGGUNAKAN GIS DAN ANALISIS PENDERIAAN JARAK JAUH.

(7) PAGE DECLARATION. i. APPROVAL. ii. ACKNOWLEGMENT. iii. ABSTRACT. iv. ABSTRAK. v. TABLE OF CONTENT. vi. LIST OF FIGURES. ix. LIST OF TABLES. xii. LIST OF ABBREVIATION. xiii. LIST OF SYMBOL. xiv 1. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. General Background. 1. 1.2. Study area. 3. a. Localism. 3. b. Demography. 6. c. Land use. 7. d.. social economic. 9. e. Road connection. 9. 1.3. Problem statement. 10. 1.4. Research objective. 10. 1.5. Scope of the study. 10. 1.6. Significance of study. 12. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW. 13. 2.1. Introduction. 13. 2.2. Regional Geology and tectonic setting. 13. 2.3. Stratigraphy. 14. 2.4. Structural geology. 16. 2.5. Historical geology. 18. 2.6. Land use and land cover. 19. 2.7. Land use/cover changes. 19. 2.8. GIS and Remote Sensing in Land use changes. 20. vi. FYP FSB. TABLE OF CONTENT.

(8) Land use potential. 23. CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY. 24. 3.1. Introduction. 24. 3.2. Materials. 25. 3.3. Methodology. 28. 3.3.1. 30. Preliminary studies. 3.3.2 Fields studies. 30 30. b. Petrology studies. 31. Laboratory works. 31. 3.3.3. a. Sampling. a.. Thin Section. 32. b.. Map production. 32. 3.3.4. Data processing. 32. a) Land use/ land cover changes. 33. b) Land use potential. 35. 3.3.5. Data Analysis and interpretation. CHAPTER 4 GEOLOGY OF LOJING GUA. 37 39. MUSANG 4.1. 4.2. Introduction. 39. 4.1.1. Accessibility. 40. 4.1.2. Vegetation. 41. 4.1.3. Traverse and observation. 41. Geomorphology. 43. 4.2.1. Topography. 43. 4.2.2. Weathering. 46. 4.2.3. Drainage pattern. 50. 4.3. Geological Map. 57. 4.4. Stratigraphy. 60. 4.4.1. Lithostratigraphy. 61. 4.4.2. Petrographic analysis. 66. 4.4.3. Structural Geology. 77. 4.4.4. Historical geology. 84. CHAPTER 5 LAND COVER CHANGES AND vii. 86. FYP FSB. 2.9.

(9) 5.0. Introduction. 86. 5.1. Result. 86. 5.1.1 Land Cover Changes of Lojing, Gua. 86. Musang. 5.2. 5.1.2 Land use potential of Lojing, Gua Musang. 96. Discussion. 99. CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND. 103. RECOMMENDATION 6.1. Conclusion. 103. 6.2. Recommendation. 104. REFERENCES. 106. viii. FYP FSB. LAND USE POTENTIAL OF LOJING.

(10) NO 1.1. TITLE. PAGE. Gua Musang, Kelantan, Malaysia (Maps of. 4. Malaysia, 2016) 1.2. Study area Base Map. 5. 1.3. The Ethnic group of Gua Musang. 7. 1.4. Land use/cover map of the Kelantan state. 8. 2.1. Peninsular Malaysia is a part of Eurasian plate. 15. (Source: Simon, 2007) 2.2. Bentong Raub suture of Peninsular Malaysia. 17. 3.1. (a) Subset of satellite image 2009. 34. 3.2. (b) Subset of satellite image 2019. 34. 3.3. False colour image for Landsat image 2009. 35. and 2019 4.1. Highway of Gua Musang – Cameron. 40. Highland. 4.2. Logging area of the study area. 41. 4.3. Logging area. 42. 4.4. Palm oil plantation. 42. 4.5. Topography of study area. 43. 4.6. Traverse map of the study area. 43. 4.7. Elevation map of the study area. 48. 4.8. chemical weathering of study area. 49. 4.9. Kaolinite formed from weathering of granite. 49. 4.10. Mudstone outcrop was undergoing biological. 50. weathering. 4.11. Drainage network patterns (sources: Ritter,. 53. 2006) 4.12. Valley of study area. 54. 4.13. The map of drainage pattern in study area.. 55. 4.14. Watershed of study area. 56. ix. FYP FSB. LIST OF FIGURE.

(11) The Geological Map of the Study Area. 58. 4.16. Cross section of the geological map. 59. 4.17. The stratigraphy column.. 61. 4.18. Granite outcrop of the study area. 63. 4.19. The outcrop of meta-mudstone. 63. 4.20. Thick Bedding of Meta - Sandstone in the. 64. study area 4.21. Contact of rock. 65. 4.22. Outcrop of Quartzite. 66. 4.23. Petrographic analysis sample 1. 87. 4.24. Hand specimen 2. 69. 4.25. Thin section of sample 2. 69. 4.26. Thin section sample 3. 71. 4.27. Hand specimen 3. 71. 4.28. Thin section sample 4. 73. 4.29. Hand specimen of sample 4. 73. 4.30. Thin section of sample 5. 75. 4.31. Hand specimen of sample 5. 75. 4.32. Quartz vein. 77. 4.33. Lineament map. 79. 4.34. Rose Diagram. 82. 4.35. Fault in the study area. 83. 4.36. Fold in the study area. 84. 5.1. ISODATA Classification 2009. 88. 5.2. ISODATA Classification 2019. 89. 5.3. Maximum Likelihood Classification 2009. 90. 5.4. Maximum Likelihood Classification 2019. 91. 5.5. Land Cover of Lojing 2009. 93. 5.6. Land Cover of Lojing 2019. 94. x. FYP FSB. 4.15.

(12) Land use potential of study area. 98. 5.8. The land use potential of Lojing in percentage.. 99. xi. FYP FSB. 5.7.

(13) NO. TITLE. PAGE. 1.1. Amount of population by the year in Gua musang. 6. 3.1. Materials for Geological Mapping. 25. 3.2. Materials for Land Use and Land Cover Changes. 27. 3.3. Landsat data for land cover changes. 28. 4.1. Topographic units. 60. 4.2. Mineral description in sample 1. 67. 4.3. Mineral description in sample 2. 70. 4.4. Mineral description in sample 3. 72. 4.5. Mineral description in sample 4. 74. 4.6. Mineral description in sample 5. 76. 4.7. Data of Joint. 81. 5.1. Land Use Classification. 87. 5.2. The Land use changes from year 2009 to year. 95. 2019. 5.3. Parameter for Weighted overlay. xii. 97. FYP FSB. LIST OF TABLE.

(14) km2. kilometre per square. km. kilometre. mm. millimetre. m. meter. TM. Thematic Mapper. xiii. FYP FSB. LIST OF ABBREVIATION.

(15) °C. Celsius. %. Percentage. σ. Sigma. xiv. FYP FSB. LIST OF SYMBOLS.

(16) INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background This research entitled “Geology and Determination of Land Cover Changes and Land Use Potential of Lojing, Gua Musang using GIS and Remote Sensing”. The research focused on two different aspects of study which is geology and land use changes of Gua Musang. The geological aspects discussed mainly on topography, lithology, structural geology, geomorphology and other geological features. In order to acquire the geology information of study area, field observation, mapping and data analysis were done at the study area while for land use changes and land use potential, it was generated by using Geographical Information System (GIS) software and Remote sensing software. Several land use categories were used to quantify the land use changes in study area such as surface water, natural vegetation, bare soil, settlement, agriculture land, forest land and Rockies area.. Lojing is the hill village located in West Province of Kelantan, bordering Cameron Highlands. Lojing is located along the second East-West Highway which is right next to the Cameron Highland and 300 meters till 2,181 meters above the sea level and covered an area of 25,435 hectares (ha). Lojing is a part of Gua Musang's Small Colonies located in Kelantan's West Province. Lojing's elevations ensure a temperature ranging from 18 ° C to 25 ° C and are connected with main river such as Belatop River, Isos river, Jelai river, Pelau’ur river, Kenrew River,Penangau River and Brooke River (SAI, 2010).. 1. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 1.

(17) understand the geology of the study area. This geology is comprised of stratigraphy, geomorphology and structural geology. The final research activities of the geology is to produce the geological map at scale 1: 25 000 of the study area. The processed data and information contained data on structural geology, geomorphology, road connection and others geological features.. This research was also focusing on the land use changes of Lojing area. Over years, Lojing have become a centre of attention due to the rapid development of agriculture and urban-related activities since 1990s. Land use includes the management and changes of natural or wild environments in built environments such as semi-natural habits as arable fields, settlement, managed forest and pastures. Land use is very important due to increasing human population and improving technology in farming or farming activities.. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled of human activities gave impact to the earth, people in the study area and its surrounding and also gave impact to ecosystem. The excessive exploitation of the land use was affected the ecosystem and the environment. The uncontrolled human activities may lead to some geohazard such landslide, mass wasting or debris flow. In order to prevent these geohazard from getting worse, human are the one should control their activities that contribute to the negative impact to the earth.. 2. FYP FSB. The study on the geology of the Lojing, Gua Musang was conducted to.

(18) Study area. 1.2.1. Localism Gua Musang is one of Kelantan's administrative districts and Kelantan's. largest district. Gua Musang is located south between the Pahang state's boarder and eastward Terengganu state (Figure 1.1). The Titiwangsa Mountain Range that runs from north to south of the Malaysian Peninsula separates Kelantan from the rest of the country and the Kelantan State faces the South China Sea to the north-east. Gua Musang's beautiful karst landscape is surrounded by limestone hills and caves with heritage values. Besides, Gua Musang consist of four localities which are Aring, Gua Gagau,Kuala Betis and Gua Musang. The main rivers that have been found in Gua Musang are Sungai Galas, Sungai Kundur, and Sungai Ketil. The age of rocks in Gua Musang is from Permian until Triassic which is consists of sedimentary rocks.. The study area is positioned in Lojing, Gua Musang which is known a as hill village in the Gua Musang constituency of Kelantan, Malaysia. Lojing lie along the East-West highway which is near to the Cameron Highland, Pahang. The biggest ethnics of the indigenous people in Lojing are mainly Temiar tribe of the Senoi nations. The study area has a total of 25km2. It lies at longitude of E101 ° 48’ 49.62’’ to E101 ° 48’ 49.62’’ and latitude of N 4° 52’ 12.52’’ to N 4° 49’ 31.26’’. Figure 1.1 show the map of Kelantan and Figure 1.2 refers to base map of the study area.. 3. FYP FSB. 1.2.

(19) FYP FSB Figure 1.1: Gua Musang, Kelantan, Malaysia (Maps of Malaysia, 2016). 4.

(20) FYP FSB Figure 1.2: Study area Base Map in Lojing, Gua Musang. 5.

(21) Demography People distribution in Kelantan is shown in Table 1.1. The data is obtained. from the Statistics Department Malaysia website. The area of study is in Lojing, Gua Musang. The data on the distribution of people in the district of Gua Musang was from 2010 and the latest was 2014.In 2010 there were about 90,057 people in Gua Musang. In 2013, there were about 111.700 people in Gua Musang. In 2014 there were increased in number of residents in Gua Musang is 114,500 people.. Table 1.1: Amount of population by the year in Gua musang. Year. 2010. 2013. 2014. Overall populations. 90,057. 111,700. 114,500. Source: Majlis Daerah Gua Musang (2015). Figure 1.3 indicates the percentage of total population Gua Musang based on ethnic group. Based on the data, there are four major ethnic in Gua Musang which can divided into Malay, Chinese, Indian and native people. Malay peoples are dominant race in Gua Musang where the total percentage of Malay population record is 60.44% followed by the Chinese 22.83% with Indian 14.88% and Native ethics with 1.85%. Figure 1.3 shows the percentage of the distributions of the different ethnics in Gua Musang.. 6. FYP FSB. 1.2.2.

(22) FYP FSB. Sales Native 1%. Indian 15%. Chinese 23%. Malay 61%. Figure 1.3: The Ethnic group of Gua Musang. 1.2.3. Land use Lojing is undergoing rapid development of agriculture and urbanrelated activities. This area is mainly dominated by forest reserved which is about 70% of the study area. Lojing is undergoing developments project which is the increasing level of topographic resistance resulting from conservation work through agricultural activities as well as the landscape. The area also dominated by plantation of rubber and palm oil plantation. Land use/cover characteristics consisting mostly of the forest, oil palm, rubber, cleared land exist in that place, mixed horticulture, garden and village distribution in the study area. Figure 1.4 indicates the land use and land cover at Gua Musang include Lojing area. Jusoff et al (2003) stated that Gua Musang is the suitable place due to the rapid changes or conversion that. 7.

(23) because of the agricukture activities in Gua Musang (Jusoff et al., 2003).. Figure 1.4: Land use/cover map of the Kelantan state. 8. FYP FSB. happens in the Gua Musang region. The rapid conversion is occurring is.

(24) Social Economic The main activity in study area is agriculture. Agricultural activity in this area. had given jobs opportunity. This is because of most of the residents in Lojing area work as farm workers and also farm producers’ work in the plantation area and logging area in the forest. In Lojing in order to generate income is through plantation activities and some logging activities. The agriculture activities have affected the social economics and it also change demographic pattern of this area. 1.2.5. Road Connection District of Gua Musang is positioned in south of Kelantan and was bordered. in the state of Pahang and the state of Terengganu. There some road connection that people can use to reach this place. Gua Musang entrance of Kelantan from the southern part by using the road connection from Jeli, from Kuala Lipis , Gua Musang can be accessed through the rock connection of Dabong or Kuala Krai. It takes about 2 hour from Jeli. Besides that, the main road connection people usually used to access Gua Musang is through Kota Bharu- Machang- Gua Musang.. There are a few ways in order to reach this study area including the highway Lojing-Kampung Kuala betis. The highway is possible ways for cars, trains and travel by bus. The train station is located in Tumpat, Kelantan. People can also access to Kelantan by plane from Sultan Ismail Petra Airport in Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu Gua Musang before continued travelling by road to the Lojing, Gua Musang. It is around 195km and took about 2hours and 58 minutes to travel from the airport to the Gua Musang.. 9. FYP FSB. 1.2.4.

(25) The research is conducted due to the incomplete existing geological map in study area. By doing this research, the new geological map can be produced and referred. Next, the lack of the study regarding to the land use changes in that particular area is become one the issue that need to be highlighted where decreasing attention of both environmental and socioeconomic points of view. There is an issue regarding the land use as the agriculture activities gave affected sides especially to the socioeconomics and environment. By using the spatial data, the recent changes of land use/cover in that particular area can be provided. 1.4 Research objective i.. To produce geological map in study area to the scale of 1:25,000. ii.. To determine land cover changes in Lojing, Gua Musang using remotely. sensed data and GIS iii.. To prepare land use potential map that show the optimal land usage of the. study area.. 1.5 Scope of the study Geological mapping and the specification study were conducted using GIS and remote sensing software. Geological mapping was carried out in the study area for the general geological aspect and this aspect is mostly focused on the geomorphology that is the landscape about the study, stratigraphy, structural geology and petrography that is considered about the rock minerals. This geological mapping was done with the help of geological devices such as Brunton & Sunto compasses, 10. FYP FSB. 1.3 Problem statement.

(26) topography map at the scale 1:25 000 were used in mapping because it’s represented the geographical features such as valley and hills in the study area. Each line contour attaches all points of an exact elevation. Topography map at the scale 1:25 000.. The method used in determining of land cover changes is GIS and remote sensing. This research used Landsat TM to detect the land use and land cover variation for the Lojing, Gua Musang, and surroundings over a specific period of time. Envi Classic software used to determine the land use /cover variation. The multi-dated satellites imaginary were downloaded from USGS and used in detecting the land cover changes that occurred in the study area. The ENVI 5.1 Imagine tool used maximum likelihood classification to classify the images. Ground truth points were collected and used in verification of image classification. The hand held field type GPS was used to identify ground control points. By using ArcGIS software, digitized base map were produced and also land used potential map of the study area.. The research also focus on the study area's potential for land use / land cover and land use. Land use / land cover changes can be detected in the province's study area and its vicinity using the Remote Sensing and GIS. A potential usage map was then created showing the most appropriate land use for the study area. It aims to create the most appropriate usage model for planning purposes for the future the province and its vicinity are to develop and manage natural resources for the study in a sustainable order by evaluating changes in land use / land cover changes and potential for land use.. 11. FYP FSB. Garmin Global Positioning System (GPS), and geological hammer. Data like.

(27) In terms of geology, this study importance is that more geological data can be added to the study area and more detailed geological map of the study area can be added. The map that is generated from GIS database and remote sensing (Landsat) is slightly different from actual environment. Then the data can be used in future for the next researcher and provide more accurate and complete data.. Besides, land use changes of study area and a map about potential land use can be produced. The recognition and mapping of land use are important in planning studies and resources management. The current information about land use, and the variation over specific period, are helpful in the wrong utilisation of land in planned development and in accurate strategy development (Karakus, C. B et al.,2015).. Potential evaluation of land use is likely to predict land use types. This case is very important in preserving the natural resources of future generations and in guiding potential land use decisions. This case is very important in the conservation of natural resources for upcoming generations and in the guidance of potential land use decisions. In addition, careful land use planning is based on land evaluation (Bolca et al., 2013).. 12. FYP FSB. 1.6 Significance of study.

(28) LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction. Chapter 2 is discussed about previous studies which are related to the research topic. The literature review was conducted before the site visit in order to gain the additional information about the research topic. The literature review is very important in aspect for justifying the prepared methodologies which serves as a guidance within wider disciplinary aspect. Therefore, this chapter is covering the geological review which can be further divided in four sub-topics namely regional geology and tectonic settings, historical geology and regional stratigraphy as well as structural geology. The research specification is covered too.. 2.2 Regional Geology and tectonic setting. Peninsular Malaysia is part of the Sundaland Eurasian plate that includes Borneo, Java and Sumatra. Sundaland's total land is about 130,269km2. (Hafner and Jin-Bee, 2006). Geographically, during the Pleistocene period, Sundaland comprises Malays Peninsular which is all positioned on the shallow water Sunda Shelf which was showed as a land during the Pleistocene period (Bird et al., 2005). Geologically, Sundaland is the southeastern promontory of the Eurasian plate and consist of Burma, Thailand and Indochina. Indochina country is including Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra Java, Borneo and the Sunda Shelf are 13. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 2.

(29) Philippine Plates (Simons et al., 2007).. Over the last two decades, the main. continental block has been identified and established from the core of the Sundaland (Metcalfe, 2006) and includes the block of South China, the block(s) of Indochina – East Malaya, the block of Sibumasu, the block of West Burma and the block of SW Borneo. Recently, the West Sumatra block was established outside Sibumasu in SW Sumatra (Barber and Crow 2003, Barber and Crow in Press ; Barber et al., 2005) and a volcanic arc terrain is now identified, sandwiched between Sibumasu and Indochina – East Malaya (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008).. Figure 2.1 shows the. Peninsular Malaysia is a part of Eurasian plate.. There is no major stratigraphic difference between the Indochina block and east Malaya block. In Thailand, the Gulf was foundered in the paleogene to separate East Malaya from its ancestral Indochina (Hutchinson C.S et al., 2009).. The state of Kelantan, is situated in north-east of Peninsular Malaysia with an area about14,922 km2. Kelantan district is consisting of 10 districts and the total population is approximately 1,288,362. The total area of Gua Musang is 8104 km2 (810 400 ha) with a population of about 143,258.and is located is the south of the Kelantan.. 2.3 Stratigraphy. The major structural geology zone in Sundaland and southeast Asia of Peninsular Malaysia is known as The Bentong-Raub Suture (BRSZ). The Bentong-Raub Suture. 14. FYP FSB. located in the convergence zone between the Indian-Australian, Eurasian and.

(30) Sundaland, Southeast Asia. It forms the boundary between Gondwana-derived Sibumasu terrane in the west and east-derived Sukhothai Arc (Pour et al., 2016). Figure 2.2 indicate the Bentong-Raub suture of Peninsular Malaysia.. Figure 2.1: Peninsular Malaysia is a part of Eurasian plate (Source: Simon, 2007). 15. FYP FSB. Zone (BRSZ) of Peninsular Malaysia is one of the largest structural areas in.

(31) serie, chert argillite sequence, malange, and olistostrome,amphibole schist, melange and olistostrome, serpentinite, and Bilut redbeds. The eastern margin consist of bedded chert and the western margin consist of Main range granite. (Hutchison, C.S., 2009) The central belt lies between the lower paleozoic sediments of Bentong group. The upper Palaeozoic sediments consist of argillaceous, volcanic, calcareous, arsenaceous rock of the Raub Group, Gua Musang Formation, Aring formation, and Kepis beds.. In the Raub group there are calcareous series and volcanic series of Carbo Permian strata, within this group there are two formations that are the formation of Aring and Gua Musang. The formation of Gua Musang consists of crystalline calcareous, interbedded with shale, tuff, chert nodules and sandstone and volcanic.. As for the Aring formation, it was named in Kelantan based on the Sungai Aring. This formation consists of pyroclastic, dolomitic marble and argillite. It is the stratigraphic equivalent of the calcareous-argileous Gua Musang Formation and related to southern rocks in the north-eastern Pahang (Hutchison, C.S. 2009).. 2.4 Structural geology. Structural geology is the study of the rock deformation that formed due to their deformational histories. There are several causes that contribute to the formation of structural geology, such as depositions of sediments, energy forces and tectonic process which is the process that controls the structure characteristics of. 16. FYP FSB. As for the Bentong Raub suture zone , the lithostratigraphy is includes schist.

(32) geologies and. Figure 2.2: Bentong Raub suture of Peninsular Malaysia. its properties can be detected and analysed towards people, their distributions, orientations, measurements and the harmless structure. Fault is the main structural 17. FYP FSB. earth’s crust through time evolution. By doing geological mapping, these structural.

(33) natural hazard such as earthquake.. 2.5 Historical geology The general acceptance of the division of the Peninsula into 3 belt and each belt has its own distinctive geological and evolution. This acceptance becomes one of Peninsular Malaysia's most significant developments. However, 3 fold divisions is not a recent observation by Khoo and Tan (1983) because it is based on aspects of mineralization. The researcher named Scrivener was proposed to divide the Peninsular into a central gold belt between east and west tin belts, and this research was conducted in 1928. This division of the Belt has evolved into the present central, eastern and western belts respectively. The belt division naturally received attention as well as these 3 belts have contrasting geology and its own marginal area between the belts(Khoo & Tan, 1983). The occurrences of serpentinite bodies in rock formations are also called the Foothills Formation and the Bentong group. The boundary of the Central/Western Belts with the combination of the occurences of the Serpentinites bodies is forming the aestern foothills of the Main Range granite in Peninsular Malaysia. Hutchinson (1975-1977) called the line as Bentong-Raub line. Extension of this line north and south as serpentinite bodies have not been stated yet in those is. The Peninsular Malaysia defines to have two linear zones. Tan (1981(a) ) mentioned that the two linear zone divided by two which is one on the eastern side and one on the western side of the Central part (Khoo & Tan, 1983).. 18. FYP FSB. geology that can harm people. Fault is the crack in the earth crust and would result to.

(34) Land use is the way the land and its resources are used by human beings. Land cover is a study that concerns the surface of the Earth's physical or natural state (Majumder, 2011).. Land cover states to the biophysical state of the earth’s surface and immediate subsurface, topography, containing soil, groundwater and surface water and human constructions. It demonstrates both natural and human made coverings of earth’s surface. The relationship between land cover and land use is not always direct and apparent. All category of land cover may provide many uses, while a single land use can include the maintenance of some different land covers (Turner et al., 1995).. 2.7 Land use/cover changes The changes in the pattern of land use in the study area need to be monitored. Lack of planning will cause complex environmental problems and water is the most affected natural resource. Change detection as stated by Singh (1989) is the process of identifying differences in the status of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times and image (Lu et al., 2004).. Land use and land cover (LULC) is the most crucial anthropogenic driver of environmental change on all spatial and temporal scales due to land use and land cover change. These changes embrace human populations ' greatest environmental concerns today, including climate change, water, loss of biodiversity, soil, and air pollution. The LULC is result in negative impact toward community (K M Kafi et al., 2014).. 19. FYP FSB. 2.6 Land use and land cover.

(35) A remote sensing technique is a very useful technique for collecting or involving large-scale information on natural resources for the entire country. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture used aerial photo interpretation to map land use. With the increasing availability of high-resolution satellite imagery and the country's upgrading of land information capabilities, the potential of the remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) to collect and update natural resource information can be explored (Jusoff et al., 2003).. Image processing structures are a key element of the infrastructure required to guide remote sensing applications and feature advanced in capability and quantity in the last 30 years. Advancements in computer technology have actually assisted the improvement of image processing systems. Advantage of remote sensing application is focused on accessibility, increased availability of methods for automated processing of remote sensing data and combined with GIS programmes. Image processing structures are a key element of the infrastructure required to manual Remote sensing programs and featured advanced in functionality and amount in the remaining 30 years. Advancements in technology of computer have sincerely assisted the improvement of photo processing systems. Advantage of remote sensing utility is focused on accessibility, multiplied availability of strategies for automatic processing of faraway sensing statistics and combined with GIS programs (Turner et al., 1995).. 20. FYP FSB. 2.8 GIS and Remote Sensing in Land use changes.

(36) facts together with unsupervised category, supervised classification, and fuzzy category. The supervised classification works such strategies as maximum likelihood classifiers (MLC), minimum-distance-to-method and parallel piped. Identifying acknowledged a concern via a combination of map evaluation, personal revel in and fieldwork. Training web page is an instance of private enjoy. It’s used to educate the classification set of rules for eventual land cowl mapping of the rest of the picture. Each pixel each inside and outdoor the education sites is then evaluated and assigned to the class of which it has the highest chance to be a member (Mulder et al., 1998).. From the result of unsupervised classification done by Oyekola and Adewuyi (2018), it proved that water, soil and vegetation were properly distinguished and defined. It can be concluded that the use of satellite imagery will help in identifying features on the ground and land cover types in an environment.. GIS is the primary tool for analysing and transferring earth paper surface spatial data (P.A, Burrough, 1986). With sophisticated GIS hardware and computer software systems, remote sensing spatial data information can be analysed. This method makes the acquisition of such information users faster and more efficient (Jusoff et al, 2003).. In most industries, necessarily remote sensing data is used as input in GIS to solve the environmental problems and land use study. All type of land use can be recognised from SPOT-5 imagery satellites. It is recommended that remote sensing. 21. FYP FSB. There are a number of image category techniques for land cowl and land use.

(37) bone data to obtain more accurate results (Khairul Amirin et al., 2010).. Works by El Sawy et al (2016) have shown integration between GIS and remote sensing analytical tools used in an effective method for analysing and understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of land cover changes and providing valuable information needed for development and planning, especially in arid regions.. Remote sensing and GIS technologies are the latest technologists to provide a powerful tool to detect and map land use / land coverage changes (Shivasharanappa, 2014).Using several multi-date images, remote sensing detects and monitors the change occurred in LULC. The changes that have occurred in land use and land cover are due to the different human action and natural conditions. LULC's main use of satellite image in remote sensing helps to detect change depends on an acceptable understanding of the images system, landscape features and methodology used in order to study the objective (Andualem et al., 2018).. An image processing and image classification method in remote sensing provides a slightly broad classification where the land cover was recognised by a single digit. This is the step of producing the spectral signature for every single type of land cover. Vegetation, settlement/build up area, barren land and water body are four signatures created in this analysis (Adaptation, 2017). 22. FYP FSB. and GIS software provide the higher resolution of the satellite image or the use of air.

(38) Land use potential as the soil and land potential to sustain a particular type of crop. The land uses the potential modelling approach described in this report only deal with the soil and land attributes that affect the productivity and management requirements of various crops. This sort of evaluation defines the land's capacity for a particular use (Jan et al., 2016).. Potential land use considers land capacity to be different from the land suitability assessment for specific use. These features such as economics, climate, pest and disease incidence,. landscape, soil type (clay, sandy or silty) , water. availability (for irrigated crops), social considerations and regulations should be considered in land suitability knowledge (Jan et al., 2016).. Mapping and awareness of land use/land cover are very essential in resource management and planning studies. The current information about land cover and use, and their variation helps in avoiding the wrong utilisation of land, in accurate strategy development aimed at conservation and in planning development (Karakus et al., 2015).. By determining changes, it can predict the potential growth vector(s) and thus make informed decisions about urban planning and encourage the well balanced development of fertile agriculture land sin concert with urban development in a way to protect people and facilitates the monitoring of at risk-land. ( Karakus et al.,2015).. 23. FYP FSB. 2.9 Land use potential.

(39) MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY. 3.1 Introduction. Materials are the things include the equipment, primary and secondary data and software used in order to conduct the basic geological mapping and to perform the thin section as well as to carry out the remote sensing analysis for analyzation of data whereas methodology is the techniques which were carried out to gain data and result of the research project.. This chapter discussed about the workflow of the study comprising the preliminary studies, field study, and laboratory works as well as data analysis and interpretation. However, the last step of the FYP is the report writing after obtained all the findings and data. With the all information gathered the result of the research can be obtained and discussed. This final year project is divided into two general sets namely the geological mapping of the study area and the data analysis for land use and cover changes. During the geological mapping, the general geological mapping was done during site visit where outcrop interpretation was done to study about the geology of the study area.. 24. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 3.

(40) The materials that were used in this project can be divided into several parts such as materials for geological mapping (Table 3.1) while Table 3.2 and table 3.3 refers to materials for land cover changes.. Table 3.1: Materials for Geological Mapping. No.. Materials 1. Base Map. Uses Base map is the that spatial model that have all the characteristic of the study area which developed from Geographic information system (GIS). 2. Global positioning It is a space-based navigation system that provides system (GPS). location and time information in all weather conditions, wherever there is an unbroken line of sight to four or more GPS satellites on or near the Earth. This equipment is used in geological field mapping for marking ones position, mapping lithology, traversing and others.. 3. Compass. It is a navigational and orientation instrument that shows direction in relation to the cardinal geographical directions or "points." Used to measure the slope orientation of the study area.. 4. Hand lens. Hand tools used in geological mapping in observing the mineral soil, sand, sediment and other small feature that not clear to be seen using our naked eyes. By using the hand lens we can see the tiny feature in rocks clearly.. 5. Geological hammer It was used to break and split rocks. It used in field geology to achieve a fresh rock surface to. 25. FYP FSB. 3.2 Materials.

(41) composition, field and nature.. 6. Sample bags. It is usually a water-proof zipper-lock bag. Sample bags are used in geological field mapping to place the collected rock samples in it.. 7. Camera. Camera is an electronic device used in geological field mapping to photograph the images of the outcrops and other features of the surrounding areas in the locality.. 8. Field book. Field notebook is used to write down each information. and. data. obtained. from. field. observation. All important observations must be written down in a concise, orderly and legible manner. 9. Polarizing microscope. Polarizing microscope which is also known as polarized light microscopy is used to define the optical properties of the minerals.. 10. Glass slides. For observation under a microscope in laboratories, it is a long thin piece of glass in which specimens are placed or secured ("mounted") on. The glass slides are held in.. 11. Epoxy. Epoxy is best known as. It is used to bind a variety of materials, metals and woods securely.. 26. FYP FSB. determine its mineralogy, history, rock strength.

(42) No. 1.. Materials. Uses. Thematic. The Landsat program introduced one of the Earth. Mapper(TM). observing sensors. TM sensors have seven image. software. data bands, most of which have a spatial resolution of 30 metres. Three wavelengths are visible, four in infrared.. 2.. Envi 5.1. Remote sensing scientist, Image analyst and GIS. software. professional usually use ENVI image analysis software to provide good and clear image information to make better decisions. Envi 5.1 software usually uses in GIS and remote sensing also as software to provide satellite imaginary. This software. can. be. used. in. identifying. the. geographical changes in a place. 3.. ArcGIS software. ArcGIS is a geographic information system (GIS) is software that usually use in geological mapping in producing the geological map. ArcGis software is one of advance technology that help researcher to produce map. The geological, lithology, drainage and traverse map were generated by suing this software.. 27. FYP FSB. Table 3.2: Materials for Land Use and Land Cover Changes.

(43) Technical properties. Data type Landsat TM satellite images Year 2009. Year 2019. USGS. USGS. 30 meter. 30 meter. Radiometric Resolution. 8 bit. 8 bit. Year produced. 2019. 2009. Projection. UTM. UTM. WGS84. WGS84. Source Spatial Resolution. Datum. 3.3 Methodology. Methodology used in this research can be divided into preliminary studies, geological mapping, laboratory works as well as data processing and data analysis and interpretation. In the geological aspect, field observation and image processing were done to produce the geological map of Lojing, Gua Musang by using ArcGIS software 10.2. In the land use changes aspects, image processing method was done with the uses of remote sensing software.. Remote sensing software is the most suitable software in order to carry out the image processing, image enhancement and visual interpretation and image classification was divided into supervised and unsupervised classification. The step was used to see the land use changes of study area within 10 years. The ArcGIS 10.2 was used in order to produce geological map and land use potential map. Besides, the ground and field observation also were done to validate the land use potential map. Figure 3.1 show the overall research flowchart.. 28. FYP FSB. Table 3.3: Landsat data for land cover changes.

(44) FYP FSB. Literature Review. Data Collection. Field study and geological Mapping. -. Land use changes. Regional Geology Stratigraphy Structural geology Lithology Geomorphology. Acquisition of Satellite imagery. Satellite image data interpretation. Image processing Laboratory works: Visual interpretation. -Thin section - Petrographic studies. Image classification NO. Weighted overlay model. Result and Discussion. YES. Land use changes map and land use potential map Conclusion and recommendation 29. Report writing.

(45) Preliminary studies. Preliminary studies are usually done before the site visit by studying related data and information from previous thesis, journal, article and other resources. This study helps to collect basic literatures and preparation of base map of study area. Article journal, books, data reports and senior’s thesis are the basic literatures that help to find new ideas and well clarify about this study. In this research, base map and topographic map were used. Topography is prepared to identify the drainage pattern, watershed, landform, and the types of lithology, lineament and vegetation in study area.. 3.3.2. Field studies. Geological mapping was carried out in study area to collect new data and review the previous map for updates. Besides, fieldwork was conducted to identify the type of lithology and the changes in drainage system of study area. The traverse routes throughout the study area are tracked by using GPS. After mapping was done, the information and traverse routes that were gathered were prepared for data analysis by using ArcGIS software.. a. Sampling. Sampling is a method of collecting rock sample to identify the bedrock underneath the area. The samples collected were used for further studies. Sampling method are done to examined the outcrop in field for their physical. 30. FYP FSB. 3.3.1.

(46) the minerals and others. Random sampling was taken either from outcrops, floats or sub outcrop and other area in the study area that is impossible. Sampling method was conducted by using the geological hammer. The sample taken were then was labelled according to the coordinate position where the rock sample were found by using Global Positioning System (GPS) and the labelling included that date and type of rock. To give the valid information about rock of the study area, the sample must be the fresh rocks. It is very important to do sampling to distinguish bedrock from other bedrock.. b. Petrology studies Petrology. comprises. of. association,. occurrence,. origins,. minerals. composition, physical properties and mineral composition of rock. The samples were gathered on the field and then examined using laboratory research. The three branches of petrology, corresponding to three types of rocks which is metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rock. Rock sample which were collected during geological mapping must be cut into smaller pieces, followed by grinding and polishing process. Then the sample was presented in the thin section. The mineral content and texture of the mineral was observed under the polarized microscope.. 3.3.3. Laboratory works Laboratory investigation is generally a process of the laboratory work where. thin section in the laboratory and the geological map of study area was updated by using the ArcGIS software. 31. FYP FSB. characteristics like the type of rock, texture, grain size, colour, degree of sorting,.

(47) . Mineralogy deals with the detailed mode of formation, occurrence, composition. of rock, types, and utilization process of mineral origin. The thin section of the rock samples were used to identify the rocks and mineral under an optical polarizing microscope. The study of mineral is basically about the physical properties, chemistry and crystal structure of a mineral. Therefore, the thin section slides are required to study the properties of rock samples. Polarizing microscope was used to identify optical properties of the minerals. Thin section is the main step in obtaining petrography analysis. Tin section is needed to identify minerals under plane polarised light (PPL) first, then proceed to crossed polar (XPL) where the two polaroid sheets are at right angles to each other. Main steps of thin section preparation are including preparing sample, cutting, polishing, and final cutting. b. Map production ArcGIS software was used to modernize and produced geological map. Geological map of study area was updated for several purposes such as development planning land use or environmental. GIS data is important as it provide an accurate data.. 3.3.4. Data Processing. Landsat TM images dated 21.01.2009 (-path 127, row 057) and Landsat TM images dated 29.08.2019 (-path 127, row 057) have been used to determined land cover variations for the Lojing , Gua Musang and environs over a particular time period as stated in table 5.1. 32. FYP FSB. a. Thin Section.

(48) a. Image processing Envi classic stands for Environment for Visualizing Image , it is a premier software application used to analyse and process geospatial imagery. Each image would be supplied as a whole frame and in the form of seven bands, LANDSAT TM image rectifying image characteristics. Satellite image for both years is developed by using all bands of all images with help of the Envi Classic software. The study area covering approximately 25km2 was extracted as a subset from the Landsat images , covering an area of 5km x 5km. The Landsat TM images of the year 2009 and 2019 were downloaded from USGS Earth Explorer. The Landsat images of the year 2009 and 2019 that were downloaded covered some part of Kelantan. Radiometric correction was done to correct for irregular sensor response over the image and geometric also done to correct geometric distortion due to Earth's rotation and other conditions of imaging (such as oblique viewing).Then, the images were resized to get exact image of the study which mean the shape file of study area was opened in Envi 5.1 and was extract as subset for both Landsat image dated 2009 and Landsat image dated 2019. The subset area was covered an area of 5 km x 5 km. Landsat 2009 image was georeferenced (Universal Transverse Mercator-UTM, WGS84) to the map with the scale of 1/25 000 and produces during geological mapping as well as Landsat 2019.The Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 is image (a) and (b) that shows the resized Landsat image to scale of 5km x 5km.. 33. FYP FSB. c) Land use/ land cover changes.

(49) FYP FSB Figure 3.1: (a) Subset of satellite image 2009. Figure: 3.2: (b) Subset of satellite image 2019. b. Image enhancement and visual interpretation The training data and testing for the image classification and accuracy assessment was collected by using an unsupervised classified image, false colour composite and field. False colour were generated with Red = 7, Green = 3 bands and Blue = 2 bands for both Landsat image. From the false colour composite image, the differentiability among the object was easier to be 34.

(50) is clearly seen the changes of the land use of study area.. Figure 3.3: False colour image for Landsat image 2009 and 2019. c. Unsupervised and supervised classification Next, image classification is the conversion process that is applied to converting raw image data to thematic information. Image classifications are the one useful method in obtaining the thematic information. This thematic information was obtained by identifying and measuring certain intervals of the electromagnetic energy spectrum spreading or reflecting from the earth’s surface, and by saving this measurement into spectral band.. Unsupervised classification process for both images will followed in order to obtain preliminary information regarding land cover for the study area. A classification process for several types of land class was then applied by using the ISODATA algorithm in an unsupervised classification process.. 35. FYP FSB. interpreted. The Figure 5.3 shows the false colour image of 2009 and 2019. It.

(51) 5.1 to conduct land cover classification under supervised classification by using maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) method. Thus, the land use map of 2009 and land use map of 2019 were generated using Envi 5.1 Software. In addition, the statistics and data were projected using the same software too.. Unsupervised classification and supervised classification were done which is the process of assigning land cover classes to pixels. ISODATA unsupervised for both image were done in order to obtain preliminary information of land cover for the 5 km x 5 km of study area. While the Maximum Likelihood of Supervised classification for both years were completed at the same time. In the order to complete the Maximum Likelihood, the training data from the both images were collected. Supervised classification uses the spectral signature defined in training set where it determine each class on what it resembles most in the training set. The training sets were classified into four classes which is forest, agriculture, barren land and vegetation. By using this classification the Land cover map for 2009 and land cover for 2019 were generated. Figure 5.4 and 5.5 show the ISODATA result classification for both of year while figure 5.6 and 5.7 show the Maximum likelihood classification for year 2009 and 2019.. d) Land use potential For generating the usage potential map for study area, 1:25 000 scale topographic maps, numerical soil maps and digital geological map were used to analyse necessary to carry out on these GIS data. Considering the map overlay technique during the. 36. FYP FSB. The datasets from satellite imageries of Landsat TM were imported to ENVI.

(52) ED50 for the analyses to be carried out in advanced stages of the study, as all numerical data require a common projection and datum variable.. The factor, sub units and the values pertaining to those unit were used, reclassified was applied in determining the naturals factors of thematic maps created using the Multi-criteria decision Analysis Module of ArcGIS 10.2 programme, their sub-units and the factor weights. After these factor, sub units and the values pertaining to those unit were used, reclassified was done applied in determining the naturals factors of thematic maps created using the spatial Analyst module(Multicriteria decision Analysis Module) of ArcGIS 10.2 programme, their sub-units and the factor weights.. 3.3.5. Data Analysis and interpretation. For the geology aspect, the traversing and sampling is the main part where from the traversing and sampling, all the geological aspect was observed and was recorded. The interpretation of the samples like rocks samples was done during the preparation of the thin-section. All the thin section of the samples was examined by using the polarizing microscope. The polarizing microscope was helped in identify the mineral and its microscopic characteristics. The field data obtained by mapping and sampling during fieldwork were used to update the geological map to the scale 1:25 000. The geological map is update from all the observation from the field. The geological map was produced by using the ArcGIS software 10.2.. 37. FYP FSB. studies, the projection of all numerical data were corrected as UTM and the datum as.

(53) unsupervised classification algorithm has been applies applied using all the bands not include the thermal band Landsat TM image. While unsupervised classification was resulted the map in false colour image and were assessed collectively. The training data gathered from the study area have been taken into consideration via the supervised classification process for the two different years, and land use variations were determined and were recorded.. The weighted overlay method was used to produce the land use potential map. Weighted overlay technique was used to assess inputs that have different values or different unit in order to be able to make an integrated analysis. The solution of spatial problems requires the analysis of many different factors (Cabuk, 2006). The land use potential was produced to by classifying the land use classes of the study area.. 38. FYP FSB. To determine the land use/ land cover variation via satellite image,.

(54) GEOLOGY OF LOJING GUA MUSANG. 4.1 Introduction Lojing is part of the formation of Gua Musang. Lojing's geology describes the earth science research concerned with its produced material, its composition, as well as the processes in the study area change over time. This chapter addresses the information contained in the study area regarding geology, geomorphology, stratigraphy, structural geology and other elements.. Geomorphology is a science that concerns the general configuration of the earth's surface in terms of nature classification and definition, origin and evolution of landforms and their relationships with underlying structures, as well as the background of geological changes. By examining the geomorphology characteristic, it is possible to examine the study area's geomorphology process and historical geomorphology.. Structural geology is the analysis of factors, classification, types and effects from of various secondary structure such as folding, faulting rock cleavage, joints , occurrences and is different from those primary structure such as bedding, vesicular and other structure that exist in the rock during the formation of rock.. Any surface exposed geological formation is called an outcrop.. 39. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 4.

(55) of superposition order, sedimentary rocks are the only rock that relates to this study. Stratigraphy is a research that reveals various aspects of the earth's history, from the beginning to the present, during the different periods of geological past.. a. Accessibility Accessibility is the way to reach and approach the place.. The good. accessibility is very essential in order to reach the place or an area. There are some choices of road connection that can be reached Lojing, Gua Musang. The study area is located in the eastern part of Gua Musang at longitude of 101˚48’ 49.62’’ E to 101˚48’ 49.62’’and latitude of 4˚52’ 12.52’’ N to 4˚ 49’ 31.26’’.This area is accessible by main road of Gua Musang – Cameron Highland with total length 4.91km. But from the study area, it takes an hour to reach Gua Musang town. The road behaviour is quite risky with the mountainous surrounding and also the lorries and timbers’ trellers kept by pass. Figure 4.1 shows the highway of Gua Musang – Cameron Highland.. Figure 4.1: Highway of Gua Musang – Cameron Highland.. 40. FYP FSB. Stratigraphy is the study of sedimentary rocks chronology. Because of the principle.

(56) walking through unpaved road of logging area, palm oil plantation, farm and forest. Figure 4.2 shows the logging area of the study area.. Figure 4.2: Logging area of the study area. b. Vegetation. Study area mostly covered by vegetation for the logging activities. Besides, some of the area consists of palm plantation and rubber tree plantation. Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 indicates the vegetation in the research area. c. Traverse and Observation. Traverse is defined as a series of points measuring angles and distances, traveling and covered around the study area. In this study, the process of mapping and collecting field data was carried out. Figure 4.6 show traverse map of sthe tudy area.. 41. FYP FSB. The study area can only be accessed by four wheel drive, motorcycle or.

(57) FYP FSB Figure 4.3: Logging area. Figure 4.4: Palm oil plantation. 42.

(58) Geomorphology is another planet's investigation of the landform. This study is referred to as geomorphology planetary or extra-terrestrial. The earth's surface topography is formed by exogenetic and endogenetic forces. The endogenetic forces primarily create high elevation through vertical motion, while the existing topography is continually denied and wear out by exogenetic forces. a. Topography Topography is the study of the shape and features of the earth. It is the detailed map of the surfaces features of the land such as the detail arrangement and information about the physical distribution of the earth’s surface shape and elevation. The topographic map shows elevation and stream of the study area.. Figure 4.5: Topography of study area. Table 4.1 shows the topographic units based on mean elevation for peninsular Malaysia. Within 25km2, the landforms observed are mountainous, hilly and plain area. The study area is surrounded by hilly (160-300 m in elevation) and mountainous area (>300m in elevation). As the lithology is mainly metasedimentary rock which area meta-sandstone and meta- mudstone, quartzite and there is granite intrusion.. 43. FYP FSB. 4.1 Geomorphology.

(59) 44 Figure 4.6: Traverse map of the study area.. FYP FSB.

(60) consists of meta-sandstone and Meta mudstone. Rocks of mudstone and sandstone as well as granite intrusion due the deformation that occur towards the landform. Mostly the areas are covered with plantation and reserved forest. There are many geological structure occurred that can be observed on the geomorphology area. The closer the contour result to the steeper elevation and more resistant to weathering compared than to the lower contour. Figure 4.7 show the elevation map of the study area. Table 4.1: Topographic units. Class. Topographic. Mean Elevation (m above sea. Unit. level). 1. Low lying. <15. 2. Rolling. 16 – 30. 3. Undulating. 31 – 75. 4. Hilly. 76 – 300. 5. Mountainous. >301. a) Hilly topographic feature Hill is a land type that extends above the surrounding fields. A hill is known to be less high than a mountain and less steep. Hills can form through geomorphic phenomena such as failure, erosion of larger landforms such as the movement of mountains and glaciers, and deposition of sediments.. 45. FYP FSB. The mountainous area which has the elevation approximately 500m mainly.

(61) A mountain defined as a landform that rises above its surrounding area at least 1,000 feet (300 meters) or more. A range of mountains is a series or chain of nearby mountains. Usually have steep, sloping sides, sharp or rounded ridges, and a high point, called a peak or a peak. b. Weathering Rocks in Malaysia weathered mainly throughout the year due to the humid weather. Weathering defined as processes occurring on or near the surface of the earth and creating changes of landscape that influences the topography of the surface and subsurface and the growth of the landform. The term weathering is referring to the process that changes the chemical and physical characters of the rocks at or near the surface. Weathering breaks downs rocks that are either stationary or moving and is relatively slow, long processes. Physical weathering is processes that break rock into smaller piece. The change in rock physical may have a little or no chemical change. Based on the study area, some of the contour pattern is close to each other and some of it is far from each other. From that it can conclude that the contour pattern that close together have steep slope of elevation while the contour pattern that far from each other is have gentle slope of elevation. The area that has steep slope of elevation has high resistance material. The area that has gentle slope of elevation have low resistance material such as softer rocks that are easily to undergoes erosion and weathering. In general, rocks differ in their resistance to weathering and erosion. The more hardness, the less reactivity and the greater a mineral's stability, the less vulnerable it will be to erosion. Differences in geological resistance can lead to the formation of columns and arches over time in the same geological formation.. 46. FYP FSB. b) Mountainous topographic feature.

(62) Chemical weathering. Chemical weathering, described as rock decomposition from water exposure and atmospheric gasses such as CO2, O2 and water vapour as rock undergoes chemical weathering, can create a new chemical compound. Initially, it works along mineral grain contacts. Tightly bound crystals are loosened at their contacts when weathering products form. The most important weathering types are solution, hydrolysis, and oxidation. Oxidation is the oxygen and water breakdown of rock, often giving iron-rich rocks a weathered surface that is rusty-colour. Figure 4.8 show the mudstone undergoes oxidation.. Hydrolysis is the chemical weathering of minerals by mildly acidic water that produces trace gases in the atmosphere when rains dissolve. Figure 4.9 shows the kaolinite which formed due to the silica weathering from the granite. The reaction of feldspar minerals with rainwater in granite produces kaolinite, white clay known as "China clay" used in porcelain, paper, and glass manufacturing. Kaolinite is the most common in warm and humid tropical climates due to weathered granite. Biotite and muscovite micas also release iron, potassium and magnesium into the sur rounding soil as nutrients by hydrolysis into kaolinite.. 47. FYP FSB. i..

(63) 48 Figure 4.7: Elevation map of the study area. FYP FSB.

(64) FYP FSB Figure 4.8: chemical weathering of study area. Figure 4.9: Kaolinite formed from weathering of granite. 49.

(65) Biological weathering. Organic weathering has been defined as organic weathering. It is the breakdown of rocks by living organisms for example vegetation that as a result of action. Animals and plants have a significant impact on the rocks as they penetrate or burrow respectively into the soil. By weakening rock or exposing it to the forces of physical or chemical weathering, biological weathering can work hand in hand with physical weathering. Figure 4.10 show the biological weathering in study area. Figure 4.10: Mudstone outcrop was undergoing biological weathering.. c.. Drainage Pattern Drainage systems also known as river systems in geomorphology are patterns. formed in a specific drainage basin by rivers, streams and lakes. It is controlled by land topography; a given region's environment is dominated by hard or soft rocks, 50. FYP FSB. ii..

(66) time that reveals characteristics of the kind of rocks and geologic structures in a landscape region drained by streams. A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a stream receives runoff, through flow and groundwater water. The number, size and shape of the drainage basins found in an area vary and the larger the topographic map.. If its pattern is related to the structure and relief of the landscape over which it flows, a drainage system is characterized as conformant. There are several contributing streams in a dendritic drainage that are close to the twigs and vine. Then the tributaries of the main river are merged. They develop where the channel of the river follows the slope of the ground. The dendritic drainage pattern of the Vshaped valley must be impermeable and non-porous as a consequence of the rock type. Dendritic pattern is the most common form of river system. In a dendritic river system, tributaries of a main river join together in a shape analogous to the twigs of a tree (Lambert, 1998).. Parallel drainage patterns are formed in which the surface has a pronounced slope. In region of parallel elongated landforms such as outcropping resistant rock bands, a parallel pattern also develops. The parallel drainage system is a river pattern caused with some relief by steep slopes. Due to steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very few tributaries, and all flow in the same direction. A parallel sometimes indicates the presence of a major fault acting on it that cuts across an area of steeply folded bedrock. All forms of transitions like this can occur between dendritic, parallel and trellis. Parallel patterns is form where there is a pronounced. 51. FYP FSB. and the land's gradients. Drainage pattern a pattern created by stream erosion over.

(67) a parallel fashion (Ritter, 2003).. Trellis drainage patterns typically develop where sedimentary rocks are folded or tilted and then eroded, depending on their strength, to varying degrees. A trellis drainage system's geometry is similar to that of a common trellis in the garden used to grow vines. As the rivers flow through a strike gorge, smaller tributaries feed into it from steep mountain slopes. Such tributaries join the main river at an angle of about 90 degrees, causing the drainage system to appear like a trellis. The main river flows through a strike valley in a trellis pattern and smaller tributaries feed into it from the steep slopes on the mountain sides. These tributaries enter right angles into the main river, causing the river system to appear trellis-like (Simon and Gerald, 2004).. In areas with very little topography and a system of bedding planes, fractures, or faults that form a rectangular network, rectangular patterns develop. . Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two direction of joining at approximately right angles, the joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The result is a stream system in which streams mainly consist of straight-line segments with rightangle bends and tributaries join larger flows at right angles of the stream.. 52. FYP FSB. slope to the surface. Tributary streams tend to spread along the slope of the surface in.

(68) rivers sometimes interlace to form a net (Simon and Gerald, 2004). The figure shows the pattern of five types of drainage. Figure 4.11 shows the drainage pattern type.. Figure 4.11: Drainage network patterns (sources: Ritter, 2006). Based on the listed given, there are only two type of drainage pattern in the study area which is dendritic and rectangular drainage pattern. Ritter (2006) stated that the dendritic drainage pattern develops in areas underlain by homogenous material. The tributaries join to the larger streams at acute angle which the ankle that less than 90 degrees). This type of drainage pattern is observed usually at the area of sedimentary rock. Dendritic is the most common drainage pattern in the stream as well as in stream of my study area. Based on the study area, the lithology found at the dendritic drainage pattern is Mudstone and sandstone. The Figure 4.13 shows the dendritic drainage pattern distribution in the study area. The rectangular pattern drainage pattern is found in regions that have undergone faulting or structural 53. FYP FSB. Reticulate drainage patterns usually occur on floodplains and deltas where.

(69) (Simon and Gerald, 2004). The intrusions of the granite were found at the rectangular drainage pattern. The intrusions were believed to occur due to the forces and movement of the tectonic plate. Figure 4.12 show the valley in the study area.. Figure 4.12: Valley of study area. Figure 4.14 shows the watersheds that exist within the study area. Watershed is an area or ridge of land separating waters that flow to various rivers, basins, or seas. Due to the different direction of river flow, there are three different watersheds. Because to the difference in elevation, the rivers flow differently, streams often flow from higher altitude to lower elevation.. 54. FYP FSB. geology. Movements of the surface due to faulting offset the direction of the stream.

(70) 55. Figure 4.13: The map of drainage pattern in study area.. FYP FSB.

(71) 56 Figure 4.14: Watershed Of Study Area. FYP FSB.