THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER MOTIVATION, SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING READING

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER MOTIVATION, SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING READING

COMPREHENSION SKILLS: THE CASE OF ESL TEACHERS IN HYDERABAD, INDIA

FARHATH UNISSA BEGUM

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA

2019

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Permission to Use

In presenting this thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from Universiti Utara Malaysia, I agree that the Universiti Library may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for the copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purpose may be granted by my supervisor or, in their absence, by the Dean of Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. It is understood that any copying, publication, or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.

It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to Universiti Utara Malaysia for any scholarly use which may be made of any material from my thesis.

Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of materials in this thesis, in whole or in part, should be addressed to:

Dean of Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Arts and Sciences UUM College of Arts and Sciences

Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 UUM

Sintok

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Abstrak

Kemajuan negara yang berkembang pesat berkait dengan pendidikan dan guru adalah tunggak yang utama. Persaingan antara guru adalah jaminan bagi pendidikan yang berkualiti. Penyelidikan telah menunjukkan bahawa guru-guru sendiri adalah salah satu faktor penentu yang paling penting amalan pengajaran mereka dan pencapaian pelajar. Oleh itu, motivasi dan kemampuan guru boleh menyediakan nilai tambah penting apabila memeriksa pencapaian pelajar.Pendidikan moden dianggap sebagai penguasaan ilmu kepada pelajar. Oleh yang demikian, guru akan mempengaruhi amalan bilik darjah memberi kesan pembelajaran mereka. Guru memainkan peranan penting dalam pengajaran kemahiran kepada pelajar dan membaca awalan mempelajari kemahiran, yang membuat semua jenis pembelajaran yang mungkin, dalam dan di luar sekolah. Kemahiran kefahaman membaca bagi pelajar sekolah kerajaan telah menurun selama ini seperti ASER (Status dalam pendidikan Laporan Tahunan) di India di Hyderabad. Kekurangan ini telah memberi kesan kepada guru dan pelajar. Kefahaman membaca dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan guru tentang latihan dalam panduan mengajar pelajar untuk belajar dengan lebih baik. Dalam situasi ini motivasi dan kemampuan guru memainkan peranan yang penting. Kurang motivasi dan produktif di kalangan guru akan memberi kesan kepada prestasi pelajar.

Para guru perlu lebuh bermotivasi dan produktif bagi menyampaikan pengetahuan dengan semangat. Secara ringkasnya, hasil kajian ini mendedahkan bahawa motivasi dan kemampuan guru mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifikan dengan pengajaran kemahiran kefahaman dalam konteks ESL. Kajian ini menggunakan turutan kepada dua (2) fasa kuantitatif diikuti dengan kualitatif. Data diambil daripada borang soal selidik kajian dan temu duga. Kajian telah menunjukkan hubungan yang positif dan signifikan antara motivasi dan kemampuan guru serta kemahiran mengajar dan kefahaman membaca. Walau bagaimanapun data kualitatif telah digunakan untuk mendapatkan kuantitatif. Kaedah yang digunakan adalah seperti mod campuran yang mana menjadi pencerahan kepada perspektif dan pengalaman guru.

Kata kunci: Guru motivasi, guru kemampuan, kemahiran kefahaman membaca, ASER, Bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa kedua (ESL).

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Abstract

The teaching of reading comprehension skills depends on teacher motivation and self- efficacy, which is a major concern among most English as second language (ESL) teachers in many Indian schools. Many constraints, such as large classrooms, students’ attitude and insufficient infrastructure, adversely affect teacher motivation and self-efficacy. The government schools in the Telangana state reported a lack of teacher motivation and self-efficacy and a persistent decline in students’ reading skills. Accordingly, the government has imposed an eligibility test and a two-year training for teachers. However, scientific studies on teacher motivation and self- efficacy, particularly on the ESL teachers in this region, are still lacking. The present study, therefore, aims to examine the relationship between teacher motivation, self- efficacy and teaching reading comprehension skills among ESL teachers of the government secondary schools in the Hyderabad district, India. The data were collected through surveys and semi-structured interviews. The explanatory sequential approach of a mixed-methods design was employed in which the quantitative and qualitative data were integrated at the intermediate and final stages of the study. The questionnaires to measure teacher motivation, self-efficacy and teaching reading comprehension skills were adopted from Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). The findings indicate a positive relationship between teacher motivation, self-efficacy and teaching reading comprehension skills among the participants of the study, lending evidence that an adequately motivated and efficacious teacher can influence students’ reading achievements. The study has provided some useful information to the state’s Ministry of Education on teacher motivation, self-efficacy and teaching reading comprehension skills. The results may guide the government in their efforts towards enhancing teacher motivation and self-efficacy and ensuring quality education. It is recommended that the government should stimulate, sustain and support teachers to enhance the quality of their teaching methods.

Keywords: Teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy, teaching reading comprehension skills, English as second language (ESL) Hyderabad.

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Acknowledgements

All praise and thanks be to Allah for making it possible for me to undertake a Ph.D programme in Applied Linguistics. Additionally, I am indeed indebted to several individuals for their enormous contribution towards the success of my Ph.D. It would not have been possible to write this doctoral thesis without the help, support and encouragement of numerous people around me. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr. Mohd Hilmi Bin Hamzah for his necessary guidance, support, cooperation, and encouragement throughout my Ph.D. I thank the management and teaching staff of the Hyderabad government secondary school and the State Ministry Education for their maximum support and cooperation that accorded to me in achieving the aims of my study. I sincerely appreciate the prayers, support, and encouragement of my beloved mother, Kareem Unissa Begum. I also appreciate the patience, cooperation, encouragement, and support of my family members throughout the Ph.D programme. Finally, my thank goes to all my family and to my youngest brother Mir Qasim Ali Khan, for his constant prayers and support in one way or the other throughout my stay in Malaysia.

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Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to the ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the most beneficent, and the most merciful for His benevolence and mercies towards me and my family,

and to

MY MOTHER, for her sacrifices, love, and prayers.

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Table of Contents

Permission to Use ... ii

Abstrak ... iii

Abstract ... iv

Acknowledgements ... v

Dedication ... vi

List of Tables ... xi

List of Figures ... xiii

List of Appendices ... xv

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1Background of the Study ... 1

1.2 Teacher Motivation ... 7

1.3 Teacher Self-efficacy ... 11

1.4 Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills (TRCS) ... 12

1.5 Problem Statement ... 14

1.6 Research Objectives ... 19

1.7 Research Questions ... 19

1.8 Scope of the Study ... 20

1.9 Rationale of the Study ... 20

1.10 Significance of the Study ... 22

1.10.1 Theoretical Significance ... 22

1.10.2 Practical Significance... 24

1.11 Telangana State ... 25

1.11.1 Indian Education System ... 27

1.12 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) ... 29

1.13 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) ... 29

1.14 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) ... 29

1.15 Operational Definitions of Terms ... 30

1.15.1 Motivation ... 30

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1.15.2 Teacher Motivation ... 31

1.15.3 Teacher Self-efficacy ... 31

1.15.4 Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills ... 32

1.16 Organisation of Thesis ... 32

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ... 34

2.1 Introduction ... 34

2.2 Self-Determination Theory of Teacher Motivation ... 35

2.2.1 Teacher Motivation ... 36

2.2.2 Intrinsic Motivation ... 41

2.2.3 Extrinsic Motivation ... 41

2.3 Relationship of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ... 42

2.4 Bandura’s Theory of Teacher Self-Efficacy ... 57

2.4.1 Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy... 59

2.4.2 Sources of Sense of Efficacy ... 59

2.4.3 Factors Influencing Teachers Sense of Efficacy ... 61

2.4.4 Measures of Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy ... 62

2.5 History of Instruments to Measure Teacher Self-Efficacy ... 65

2.6 Theoretical Framework ... 88

2.7 Summary of the Chapter ... 96

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY ... 98

3.1 Introduction ... 98

3.2 Meaning of Mixed-methods Research ... 98

3.2.1 Approaches to Mixed-mode Design ... 100

3.2.2 Explanatory Sequential Research Approach ... 102

3.2.3 Quantitative Phase Approach ... 103

3.2.4 Qualitative Phase Approach ... 104

3.3 Phase I: Quantitative Data ... 110

3.3.1 Population of the Study ... 110

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3.3.2 Sample Size Determination... 111

3.3.3 Research Instruments ... 112

3.3.4 Reliability of the Questionnaire ... 115

3.3.5 Validity of the Questionnaire ... 117

3.3.6 Pilot Study ... 118

3.3.7 Ethical Considerations ... 119

3.3.8 Demographic Profile of the Participants ... 119

3.3.9 Data Screening and Transformation ... 120

3.3.10 Response Rate ... 121

3.3.11 Non-Response Bias Test ... 122

3.3.12 Accuracy of Data Input ... 124

3.3.13 Missing Data ... 124

3.3.14 Data Collection Procedure ... 125

3.3.15 Data Analysis ... 127

3.4 Phase – II Qualitative Data ... 128

3.4.1 Sampling Techniques ... 128

3.4.2 Interviewees ... 129

3.4.3 Data Collection ... 130

3.4.4 Data Analysis ... 130

3.4.5 Ethical Consideration ... 137

3.5 Summary of the Chapter ... 137

CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 140

4.1 Introduction ... 140

4.2 Research Process ... 141

4.3 Main Findings of Phase I: Quantitative ... 142

4.4 Summary of the Phase I: Quantitative ... 151

4.5 Phase -II Qualitative Analysis ... 151

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4.6 Summary of the findings Phase II: Qualitative ... 160

4.7 Discussion ... 161

4.8 Data Triangulation ... 164

4.9 Summary of the Chapter ... 169

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION ... 172

5.1 Introduction ... 172

5.2 Reflections on the Methodology ... 172

5.2.1 Review of Methods ... 173

5.3 Summary of the Results ... 174

5.4 Implications of the Study ... 176

5.4.1 Theoretical Implications ... 177

5.4.2 Methodological Implications ... 179

5.4.3 Practical Implications... 179

5.5 Conclusion ... 181

5.6 Recommendations for Future Research ... 182

5.7 Final Thoughts ... 184

5.8 Limitations of the Study... 187 REFERENCES ... 189

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Major Findings for In-Service Teacher Motivation Research…………...55

Table 2.2 Summary of some Measures of Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy……….65

Table 3.1 Research

Design………...105

Table 3.2 Reliability and Validity information and obtaining the TSES………110

Table 3.3 Demographic Variables

analysis……….116

Table 3.4 Response Rate of

Questionnaire………...118

Table 3.5 Results of Independent Sample, t-

test……….119

Table 3.6 Total and Percentage of missing

value………121

Table 3.7 Profile of participants……….…126

Table 3.8 Coding of Qualitative

Data……….130

Table 3.9 Thematic Analysis………..131

Table 4.1 Results of

variables………...138

Table 4.2 A one-way ANOVA among the academic qualification groups of the

teachers about study

variables………..139

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Table 4.3 A one-way ANOVA among the professional experience groups of the teachers about the study variables………..139 Table 4.4 A one-way ANOVA among the age groups of the teachers about the study variables………..140 Table 4.5 Pearson correlation between intrinsic and teacher self- efficacy………….139

Table 4.6 Pearson correlation between Extrinsic and Teacher Self- Efficacy…….…140

Table 4.7 Pearson correlation between Intrinsic and TRCS………...142

Table 4.8 Pearson correlation between Extrinsic and TRCS…………..…………....143

Table 4.9 Pearson correlation between Efficacy for Instructional Strategies and TRCS………..143 Table 4.10 Pearson correlation between Efficacy for Classroom Management and Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills………..144 Table 4.11 Pearson correlation between Efficacy for Student Engagement and

Teaching Reading Comprehension

Skills………..144

Table 4.12 Standard multiple regression analysis for Teachers Motivation as predictor of Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills………..145 Table 4.13 Standard multiple regression analysis for Teacher Self-Efficacy as

predictor of Teaching Reading Comprehension

Skills……….….145

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Map of India………25

Figure 1.2 Indian Education System………26

Figure 2.1 Theoretical framework………86

Figure 3.1 Approaches to mix methods designs……….……….97

Figure 3.2 Explanatory Sequential Mix- Methods………...104

Figure 3.3 Map of India showing the other states with Hyderabad District……….…106

Figure 3.4 Qualitative Analysis Procedures………128

Figure 4.1 Research Process………...136

Figure 4.2 Perceptions of ESL Teachers……….…...147

Figure 4.3 Teacher Motivation………...148

Figure 4.4 Teacher Self- Efficacy………....150

Figure 4.5 Experiences of ESL teachers……….…151

Figure 4.6 Teaching reading comprehension skills………152

Figure 4.7 Effects of teacher motivation……….153

Figure 4.8 Effects of teacher self- efficacy………..…154

Figure 4.9 Data Triangulation……….160

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List of Appendices

Appendix A Questionnaire………...…….212

Appendix B Interview Consent Form……….218

Appendix C Interview Questions………...220

Appendix D Permission Letter………..…….221

Appendix E Data Sheet……….222

Appendix F Statistical Analysis………....223

Appendix G Coding Template………..224

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List of Abbreviations

ASER Annual Status of Education Report B.Ed. Bachelor of Education

ESL English as Second Language

NCTE National Council for Teacher Education

NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training

R Respondent(s)

SDT Self-determination theory

TM Teacher Motivation

TSE Teacher Self-Efficacy

TRCS Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills TSES Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1Background of the Study

Teaching and teacher quality have several overlapping definitions that are closely linked together, but are sometimes treated as different issues. Teaching quality is a combination of teacher characteristics such as professional qualifications, experience and in-service training. The expected outcome of a quality teaching leads to betterment of the students (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). Teaching facilitates learning in the current challenging environment of the schools by delivering quality instructions, classroom management, and student engagement (Bosman 2012; Wildman 2015).

In third world countries, teachers are usually under constant pressure to complete the content related to examination, and are under institutional stress to cover the entire syllabus in a given time (Gordon, 2011). The competency of a teacher under such circumstances demands the four basic teaching skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing, for imparting quality education to the students. One of the most significant teaching skills is reading. Reading is a process that involves many elements made up of innumerable practices that are interrelated. The success of a teacher lies in making students excel in teaching reading comprehension skills (TRCS). In this process, teacher motivation and self-efficacy play a major role in enhancing their TRCS. When a teacher is adept in TRCS, the dissemination of quality education is facilitated, but if the teacher is incapable of delivering improved TRCS to the students, quality teaching process is immensely affected. Such teachers are demotivated and a have low level of self-efficacy (Walker and Slear (2011). This means that teacher motivation and self-efficacy have a link with TRCS.

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However, several challenges keep arising while implementing high-quality reading comprehension instructions for students, with learning disabilities in secondary schools. Numerous studies have highlighted that if the instructions about reading comprehension skills are poor, the students will be unable to comprehend the text (Strahler, 2013). A review of the existing literature on effective teaching classroom instructional practices has also demonstrated that teacher is the main source of imparting learning skills to the students (Hiver, Kim, & Kim, 2018).

In spite of the recent educational reforms, the status of teachers is declining in many societies (Fwu & Wang, 2002). There is a consensus among the researchers that the present system of education has taken a turn from being teacher-centric to student- centric. Teachers are no longer regarded as mentors and reformers but are rather considered as knowledge transmitters preparing students for the national testing (Absor & Jameel, 2017). Currently, in a pluralistic society, teaching is only viewed as

‘one occupation among many’ as opposed to the view of traditional society as it being

‘a highly respected mission’ (Hinchey, 2010).

Previous studies have shown that, next to school infrastructure and resources, teachers represent the largest, most extensive, and most critical factor in improving quality in any education system (Ololube, 2007). Teachers are required to play various roles in pedagogical process and are responsible for engaging students for acquiring proper learning skills (Keshwar & Devi, 2013; Wolf et al., 2015).

According to Ariffin (2000), teaching seems as an endless battle of ever-rising academic expectations and constantly changing societal requirements, which has put

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tremendous pressure on teachers. Teachers are often first in the firing line of politicians, media, parents, students, and schools in the wake of any fault found in the quality of basic education of the children (Olantunji, 2011). As a result, teachers are not only exposed to stress, but are at risk of burnout, which may lead to a decline in their motivation and commitment to teaching, and ultimately, the process of quality teaching is ceased (Wolf et a l . , 2015).

Furthermore, Liu and Onwuegbuzie (2012) pointed out that teaching profession faces frustration and embarrassment. Consequently, the issue of teachers’ motivation and self-efficacy has gained considerable attention over the last few decades (Hettiarachchi, 2010; Liu & Onwuegbuzie, 2014).

Recent studies have explored different aspects of teacher motivation, including the factors that affect teaching and the relationship between teacher motivation, student motivation, and learning outcome (Hettiarachchi, 2010; Richardson et al., 2014).

Although numerous studies on teacher motivation have been conducted in developed countries, there is scanty research on this topic in some developing countries (Johnson, 2006; Buss, 2010; Wiseman, 2012).

The effective output of teachers working in satisfaction-yielding environments proves that schools with better working conditions for the teachers achieve higher academic performance. Manageable workloads, optimum facilities, and satisfying environment are important ingredients that yield productive outputs (PIRLS, 2011; Johnson, Kraft,

& Papay, 2012). A positive school environment leads to immense job satisfaction and

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enhances the efficacy of the teachers, resulting in improved learning capabilities of students (Steca, & Malone, 2006).

Kachru (1985) described the spread of English in terms of three concentric circles: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. The inner circle belongs to the countries where English is spoken as a native language, while the outer circle consists of the countries where English is learned as a second language, such as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana and others (Rajadurai, 2005). The expanding circle consists of those countries where English is learnt as a foreign language (Crystal, 1997), for instance, China, Japan, Greece, and Poland. As India falls in the outer circle where English is learnt as a second language, there are diverse challenges for the students and teachers, which need to be addressed.

Darling-Hammond (2000) and Hill et. al. (2005) stated that teacher preparation is critical for effective teaching. Teachers need training to gain the teaching skills of the subjects that they teach. This will facilitate the understanding of how students can better learn to achieve towards effective pedagogy in TRCS.

According to Harris and Sass (2011) and Leigh (2010), experience in teaching is essential, and the beginning years of teaching are very important for the motivation and efficacy of the teachers. They also found that teachers constantly strive to improve their pedagogical skills after few years of experience, which result in improved student achievements.

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Education is one of the sources that make the children aware of the world and themselves, widen their perceptive, and seek the truth. The Indian education system considers secondary school education system as a bridge between the elementary and higher education (Baleghizadeh & Gordani, 2012; Mazlum et al., 2015). This is because secondary education plays a vital role in shaping a child’s life for his or her future. Also, secondary education directs students to succeed in their future career, (Carlson, 2009; Cain & Nash, 2011). Thus, secondary school teachers play a vital role in every child’s life and provide them a platform that directs a child towards generic competencies and skills in the spheres of knowledge (Adler, 2001).

According to the Telangana government’s policies, Indian constitutional provision makes it compulsory to provide free education to all children up to the age of fourteen. However, the investment on education has never been prioritised as a policy (Chaudhari, 2016; National Centre on Education & the Economy, 2005). Educational resources are very limited in Indian government schools including shortage of classrooms and lack of necessities when compared to private schools (Chaudhari, 2016).

Reports on the quality of education highlighted issues of motivation and self-efficacy of English as second language (ESL) teachers and the need to determine a good curriculum and pedagogical skills (Absor & Jameel, 2017). There is scarcity of teachers with excellent teaching skills who can effectively motivate their students to opt for higher education, which is essential to build a knowledgeable generation (ASER, 2016).

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Reading comprehension in English language is related to the performance of students, which requires highly motivated and efficient ESL teachers. In this regard, while discussing the ESL teachers’ true picture in India, Kazeem (1999) stated that teachers and other workers of the school stay satisfied and motivated if salaries are being paid promptly.

As suggested by Eton (1894), the salaries and allowances paid on time result in instilling satisfaction among teachers and improving their work progress. Payments paid regularly motivates teachers to deliver high standards of teaching with complete commitment. In order to boost the efficacy in teaching, teachers need to be paid extra allowances and other promotional incentives.

Moreover, adequate TRCS is a global necessity in teaching profession in schools, and to ensure that, teacher motivation and self-efficacy is required (Barnett, 1988; Bedel, 2016; Cambri, 2010). Teachers need to have advanced knowledge in TRCS, which is necessary for proficiency in teaching strategies in school (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott &

Wilkinson, 1985; Taboada & Buehl, 2012).

Therefore, TRCS with high self-efficacy requires many strategies such as direct explanation, modelling, and guided practice and application along with motivation of teachers intrinsically as well as extrinsically (Barkley, 2006; & Reiss, 2012).

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Progress in International Reading Literacy (PIRLS) have internationally compared the student achievement data, which is critical to policymakers for monitoring and improving

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education systems around the world. Teachers are meant to be the first curriculum implementers. Most of the interest is sought in policies about teacher education and its practices. As stated in TIMSS (2015), there has been an immense development in educational needs of teachers in primary as well as secondary schools. Developed countries have employed various programmes for the development of teacher education including teachers’ career and achievements in examinations.

However, the outcomes from PIRLS exhibit that higher achievement in schools depends only on the teachers. The general classification of resources, viz, general and specific, are subject to curriculum implementation. The resources for reading specific subjects include materials such as e-books, magazines, periodicals, digital resources like educational software application, and subscriptions to educational websites.

1.2 Teacher Motivation

Deci and Ryan (2000) described motivation as the readiness to employ extreme levels of determinations towards improving work conditions and satisfying individual needs at work place. According to many other researchers, teacher motivation is a process of influencing teacher behaviour and completion of tasks in school (Bernaus, Wilson &

Gardner, 2009; Nicklin & Ford, 2014). Also, teacher motivation is perceived as a positive attitude to work resulting from the school’s policies for the teachers (Ramchandran, Pal, Jain, Shekhar & Sharma, 2005). Teachers’ interest is important in teaching profession; school environment is a key to teachers’ success in classroom.

Additionally, motivation is a significant factor that compels people to do something and is one of the essential elements to achieve success in the teaching profession

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(Fokkens-Bruinsma & Canrinas, 2013). Teacher motivation in the school is also improved when students respond with compliance to the assignments given by the teachers (Bosman, 2012; Karoulis, 2011). Salaries and promotions are key motivating factors for teachers in school. Teachers are satisfied and motivated if the performance of the student is higher in academics (Butler 2012; Lee & Reeve, 2012). Teacher are also motivated by students’ behaviour.

Furthermore, motivation can be differentiated into two specific dimensions, which are intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation relates to an activity that is engaged in, for the purpose of pleasure and satisfaction. The epistemic should deeply understand the necessity of intrinsic motivation in teachers for them to successfully accomplish an activity. Intrinsic motivation is a process of doing an activity that is essential for teachers’ satisfaction in school. Deci and Ryan (2008) specified that intrinsic motivation exists between a person and a job or a task. Habil and Said (2008) stated that teacher motivation in terms of performance is being interesting, while others see it as personal satisfaction from task engagement.

Cerasoli et al. (2014) defined extrinsic motivation as a form of motivation, which deals with performing an activity to attain a major outcome. They affirmed that extrinsic motivation influences the behaviour of a person, and is an important aspect of teachers’ self-efficacy. Teacher’s extrinsic motivation involves activities that opt for rewards. Reiss (2011) stated that teachers’ motivation also comes through intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as a change in school environment that ultimately affects their efficacy in teaching.

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Youlonfoun (1992) demonstrated that good salaries and their prompt payment are important motivating factors for the teachers that contribute towards efficacy in teaching. It is argued that other factors can also impact the commitments in the teaching job. One among them is the difference that persists between teaching profession and other professions. To cite an example, the teacher’s environment, possesses an assigned value of the profession. Teachers influenced by intrinsic motivation usually stay job-satisfied. A teacher needs supportive resources, learning facilities, safety and good health to teach in a school (Mukhopadhyay, Sudesh & Anil Kumar, 2001). Therefore, teacher motivation is what makes teacher satisfied, happy, committed, and dedicatedin order to give best performance in teaching.

Self- determination levels and motivation types are situated at different points that are known to be the continuum of self-determination. Intrinsic motivation serves the purpose of experiencing stimulations that represent different levels. In contrast, extrinsic motivation accomplishes levels in the intermediate range of self-determined behaviour. (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Moreover, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is like involving in an activity for the sake of the activity being interesting enough.

Extrinsic motivation leads towards an activity for reasons that are instrumental in nature. The external factors are believed to be controlled by several forms of extrinsic motivation. Motivation of this type may be aligned through a different degree to which the goals are set. SDT proves that intrinsic motivation may lead to the consequences that are mostly positive (Ryan & Connell, 1989; Ryan & Deci, 2002).

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Deci and Ryan (2008) asserted that teacher motivation is a source of students’

academic achievements in school. The school management needs to cater for teachers’ incentives like salary, promotion, job benefits and professional developments (Alexander, Chant, & Cox, 1994; Reiss, 2012). It is believed that many factors are responsible for promoting motivation in the teachers. The factors that influence motivation can include materials as well as psychological aspects. The experiences that teachers undergo daily influence the activities to be more rewarding in psychological aspect. However, the motivation of the teachers is expected to enhance the level of academic progress. Moreover, Reiss (2012) stated that teacher’s motivation is the key to the teacher’s behaviour or attitude towards work. It also involves teacher’s desire to contend the pedagogical process in teaching and learning and to focus on students’ discipline and classroom management (Cambria & Guthrie, 2010; Bowe & Gore, 2017).

To sum up, teachers cannot expect students to comprehend printed material if they have not read it by themselves. A focus on improving motivation will lead to improved reading comprehension. This is an aspect of learning that cannot be ignored and may lead to enhanced relationships between learning and motivation. Since reading is a basic and vital part of the learning process at almost every level of education, improved comprehension of what students read, must be a major goal of all teachers.

In brief, teacher motivation towards teaching has an important impact on academic success. Educators who are able to tap the wealth of motivation in themselves will

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therefore be able to help their students improve their comprehension capability and all that it entails.

1.3 Teacher Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is individuals’ belief and ability in their performance in a certain situation, or how effective they feel in being able to accomplish a certain task.

Teacher self- efficacy is a teacher’s belief that students can be taught irrespective of factors such as the environment or families (Jennet et al., 2003). Self-efficacy can also be described as a belief in the ability to plan, organise, and carry out activities to attain given educational goals (Skaalvik & skaalvik, 2007). According to Bandura (1997), the expectations of personal self-efficacy in teachers would determine whether or not coping behaviour would be initiated, how much effort would be required, and how long it would be able to sustain in the face of obstacles and adverse circumstances. Bandura (1997) also noted that people’s perceptions of their efficacy influence the types of anticipatory scenarios that they construct and reiterate.

Furthermore, in teaching, highly efficacious teachers feel confident about their teaching skills. Those who have a high level of self-efficacy will approach a challenge with their strength and resources, knowing that they will make a difference and can conquer that challenge.

Ashton and Web (1986) stated teaching efficacy as teachers’ belief on the capacity to assist students during teaching and learning. They observed that teachers with low self-efficacy tend to avoid planning activities in the school, are unlikely to solve students’ reading difficulties, and lack new methods of teaching students in the classroom. In contrast, teachers with higher self-efficacy attend to students’ learning

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challenges, and guide them to succeed. They concluded that there is a requirement for research on self-efficacy and reading comprehension in schools.

Self-efficacy and its influences on teachers and on students have been observed by numerous scholars. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy are more likely to emphasise on teaching actions rather than on non-academic activities (Gibson &

Dembo, 1984). Effective teachers lead their students to successfully accomplish their reading skills (Armor et al., 1976). In addition, teacher self-efficacy is linked to self- assurance and related with job approval. Teachers with high levels of efficacy reported higher levels of job satisfaction (Klassen & Chiu 2010).

1.4 Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills (TRCS)

TRCS are essential in English language and are significant tools for societal education and economic revolution, as English is a global language (Carlson, 2009).

Nevertheless, only a well-sophisticated population is acquainted of their significance (Azizezhad, Hashemi, & Darvishi, 2013). Comprehension in English is not only essential to support personal growth on international level but also a precondition for evolution to be inclusive; only a person having good comprehension of English can avail most of the national and international opportunities (Taboada & Buehl, 2012;

Tejaswani & Sridevi, 2012).

However, comprehension lessons entail goals that include silent reading on student.

The competence of the ESL teachers in language teaching focuses on the reading part.

Most of the teachers do not take much interest in TRCS, as they are interested in presenting illustrations from the books provided to them. In most of the government

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secondary schools, ESL teachers give less preference to the reading comprehension part as they run behind completing the prescribed syllabus. Another reason for children being inactive in reading is that they are bound to memorise the text for the purpose of examinations. Pressure of completing the syllabus and lack of time affect the reading skills of the students.

Gottfried (1990) showed that teaching reading comprehension is positively correlated with teachers’ intrinsic motivation for reading comprehension skills (Gottfried, Cook, Gottfried, & Morris, 2005). Reading instructional programmes increasingly focus on comprehension skills as children matriculate through school. Thus, deeper understanding is required by classroom teachers who are trying, among many other tasks, to determine what their students have gleaned from the reading.

Additionally, research results from the TIMSS and PIRLS have proven that learning activities have lot of importance on the students’ achievements and in their educational pursuits (Anders et al., 2012; Gustafsson, Hansen, & Rosén, 2013;

Hooper, 2017; Skwarchuk, Sowinski, & LeFevre, 2014). In order to meet this demand, the PIRLS 2016 context questionnaire covers five main areas: school contexts, classroom contexts, National and community contexts, home contexts, and student characteristics and their attitudes towards learning. In order to enhance the scales for PIRLS 2016, its questionnaire needs to focus on the entities and upgrade the properties of measurement in 2011 scales.

Therefore, reading is considered to be a complex process, made up of tiny entities that are related to the abilities and skills. The efficiency of the teachers lies in making the

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children read effectively. Similarly, a teacher who is inefficient in teaching and less devoted towards her/his activities, may not be able to fulfil the needs of the students (Bond et al., 1989). A comprehension bears two areas namely, thematic and linguistic.

Since teaching is seen to facilitating learning, this study focuses on teacher motivation and self-efficacy and their impact on TRCS.

Motivated and self-efficacious teachers evaluate students’ reading comprehension skills through the assessment of reading and try to overcome their reading difficulties in schools (Kent 2013, Klassen & Tze, 2014). Besides, reading comprehension is an important element for academic success and lifelong learning for the students of Hyderabad government secondary school (Pressley & Allington, 2014).

Considering the challenges of English comprehension among the students in the Hyderabad government secondary schools, some studies were conducted on students’

motivation for reading, but not on teachers’ motivation and teachers’ self-efficacy.

Thus, to compensate for some of the gaps in exploring teachers’ motivation, immediate investigation was much required (Chaudari,2016). The current study, hence, investigates the relationship between teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy, and TRCS in the ESL context at the government secondary schools of Hyderabad district, Telangana State, India.

1.5 Problem Statement

Reading is defined as a process or skill that consists of different components that can be taught.Good teaching reading is necessary for students to learn how to read, and for teachers to be successful in their teaching of reading comprehension skills, in

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order for them to develop a deep understanding of reading theory and practice (Drummond, 2005). The influential report of the National Reading Panel (2001) endorsed five “pillars” of reading instruction, including phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, and vocabulary; the fifth pillar was instruction.

Numerous teachers and students face problems in using English as a medium of instruction, especially in the goverment secondary schools of Hyderabad (Telangana State of India) as they lack the appropriate reading skills. The students who have low reading skills lag behind because reading comprehension skills is one of the most important aspects that influence students’ academic performance. The opportunities for academic and occupational success are limited without the ability to read, and if students experience difficulty in learning to read it crushes the excitement and love for learning which most student have when they enter school (Lyon, 2003).

Despite the progress and developments in retention and approach, the area of learning outcomes has become a serious concern. According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) (2016), many fifth-grade students do not have enough reading comprehension skills to read English text books of grade two. A report from the British Council of India on training of 1,200 teachers in Telangana government schools revealed challenges of teachers in terms of motivation and self-efficacy in schools (British council, 2016). The ASER has pointed out that, the teaching reading comprehension skills (TRCS) of teachers is a challenge in secondary schools (ASER, 2017). Lack of motivation and self-efficacy adversely affects the teachers’ work performance, which ultimately affects the academic achievements of students (Bandura, 1997). It is found that motivated teachers tend to perform their teaching

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magnificently, while teachers with low self-efficacy are perceived as low achievers.

Teachers’ TRCS are integral for the improvement of students’ reading skills, which depend upon teacher motivation and self-efficacy (Nishino 2012).

Teachers’ play a key role in shaping students’ behaviour and moral values (Lee &

Reeve, 2012). Teachers are required to be adequately motivated to ensure a good school system. Lack of motivation can lead to teachers’ stress, ineffective school performance and classroom management (Bishay, 1996; Vaidynathan & Gopinathan, 2001; Bosman, 2012). In fact, education enables the students to imbibe different knowledge-related entities like attitudes, values and etiquettes, which are helpful in making them responsible citizens of the country. Institution of education has been the main centre of information from the beginning to the late 1800’s, which has updated societies about human civilisation (Ministry of Education, 2018).

In this era of global education system, teacher motivation is a paramount factor for school’s academic improvement, advanced learning and societal educational development (Atkinson, 1964; Atkinson, 2000; Wildman, 2015). The language teachers are motivated to a larger extent by intrinsic factors, compared to extrinsic ones (Erkaya, 2012; Wild et al., 1997). Teachers’ enthusiasm and commitment are generally confirmed to be the most important factors that motivate learners in language learning. Teacher self-efficacy is a key factor that affects student experience and successful outcomes (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Teacher self-efficacy has the potential to influence teacher behaviour, impact on student learning and success, and affect an individual’s commitment to teaching and service (Ashton, James, & Singer, 1982; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993; Rose & Medway, 1981; Tschannen-

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Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). Several studies have focused on the effect of teacher motivation (Brookhart & freeman, 1992; Richardson & Watt, 2007) and self-efficacy on language teaching in different subjects. Hoy (1995), Schunk (1990), Ross (1992), and Shaughnessy (2004) have argued that there is a need for teachers to have awareness of their capacity, which affects students’ achievements.

The field of education can be viewed as a grooming industry that provides professional development for teachers to help them better rationalize the teaching practices (Slomp, 2005). The mainstream teachers view completion of prescribed official syllabus as the most important and foremost concern in their teaching practices (Sucuoglu, 2017). Language teachers are supposed to follow the national language policies about teacher training. However, teachers should possess and focus on the acquisition of English language skills, good command on spoken English, and background knowledge to enable a child to be a good reader (Hammond 2000; Borg, 2018). The education system for quality improvement has reinforced the working of the secondary school teachers for the last couple of years (Tejaswani & Sridevi, 2012). It is argued that the major issue rises from the quality of the teacher education and the infrastructure of the school. According to the report from the Indian school education system overview (2014), there is severe shortage of teachers in government schools with the ratio of 40 students per teacher in a class.

Similarly, it has been noticed that in government schools, there is scarcity of learning resources and most essential facilities like libraries, digital boards, help books and materials, blackboards, clean drinking water, covered buildings, and toilets (Singh 2012, National Center on Education and the Economy, 2016). The refusal of teachers

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to accept rural remote postings tends to intensify absenteeism and discourage teaching activity. In such situations, teachers face different authoritative decisions by the government and educational system, and are helpless to follow the hard and fast rules about their posting in remote rural areas, which decreases their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation level, eventually lowering self-efficacy (Retelsdorf, Jan, Gunther &

Catharina, 2011). English is the most widely spoken language in the world (Oakhill &

Cain, 2012) and English language teachers encounter different challenges in excelling obligations in the schools. Managing the students, where the strength is out of proportion, affects administrative duties. Teaching also proves to be difficult when students are often found absent from the classes, and their attitudes are lethargic (Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1996; Lee & Barro, 2001; Lee & Zuze, 2011).

Instructions may also be affected by shortage and quality of the resources. Along with teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy, some basic resources, well-trained teachers, spacious classrooms and other essential school amenities are required for providing good environment. (Johnson et al., 2012).

All the aforementioned challenges emphasize the need of an empirical study on the relationship between teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy and TRCS of English as second language (ESL) teachers at secondary schools in Hyderabad district. However, the attempts to address the issues of teachers’ motivation, self-efficacy and TRCS are still lacking. Very few investigations have taken place in Hyderabad, which directly focus on teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy. Also, limited attention has been paid to the low levels of motivation among teachers in Hyderabad, despite the fact that most interventions aimed at improving the quality of schooling will not succeed unless teachers are well motivated (Shaari et al., 2002; Seniwoliba, 2013; Igbafe et al.,

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2015). In this context, this study seeks to explore the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and the level of self-efficacy, and their relationship with TRCS of the ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad district.

1.6 Research Objectives

The main goal of this study is to establish the relationship between teachers’

motivation, self-efficacy and TRCS, which is accomplished through fulfilling the following objectives:

i) To examine the relationship between teacher motivation and teacher self- efficacy among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad.

ii) To examine the relationship between teacher motivation and TRCS among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad.

iii) To examine the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and TRCS among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad.

iv) To probe into the experiences of ESL teachers in TRCS in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad.

v) To explore the perceptions of ESL teachers on teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad.

1.7 Research Questions

This study is guided by the following research questions;

i) What is the relationship between teacher motivation and teacher self- efficacy among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad?

ii) What is the relationship between teacher motivation and TRCS among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad?

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iii) What is the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and TRCS among ESL teachers in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad?

iv) What are the perceptions of ESL teachers on teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad?

v) What are the experiences of ESL teachers in TRCS in the government secondary schools of Hyderabad?

1.8 Scope of the Study

This study was based in Hyderabad, the capital city of Telangana state in South India.

The participants of the current study were chosen from the government secondary school ESL teachers of Hyderabad. The purpose of this study is to help the policy makers, stakeholders and even teachers to get the awareness of their capacity, which is teacher self-efficacy, and the Telangana government will also become aware of the perceptions and experiences of the in-service ESL teachers of government secondary schools.

1.9 Rationale of the Study

This study was designed to examine the relationship between teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy, and TRCS among the government secondary school ESL teachers. The study considers both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to enhance teacher the self-efficacy of the teachers (Scott 1996; Scharlach 2008; Spiegel 1998;

Yilmaz 2011; Yogurtcu 2012). Thus, the findings of this study are expected to

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highlight the measures that the government should take to motivate the teachers intrinsically and extrinsically for quality education (Srivastau & Raj 2016).

Moreover, in the government schools of Hyderabad district, the reading abilities of the students are below average. The grade five students are not able to read the book of grade two levels (ASER Report, 2016). On the other hand, the teachers in government schools face challenges, such as poor environment, scarcity of basic needs and overcrowded classes, which reduced their motivation and the level of self- efficacy.

On the other hand, the Telangana government has introduced English as medium of instruction in all government schools. Teachers are instructed to teach only in English, in order to overcome the poor quality imparted by instructing in local languages. The British council (2016) gave training to the teachers focusing on the improvement of teacher development systems and supporting ESL teachers especially in their professional development.

The current study focuses on the TRCS of ESL teachers. The study also explores the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of teachers in teaching and the level of their self- efficacy in the classrooms. The past studies conducted on teachers’ teaching language by Schunk (1998) observed that the major factor in students’ achievement is related to teachers’ self-efficacy. The teachers’ intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy and TRCS are the only possible factors that can affect students’ achievement (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Similarly, Bandura (1986) reported that efficient teachers have an impact on students’

achievements, and further elucidated how the teachers could be motivated intrinsically as well as extrinsically, and how this motivation improves their TRCS.

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Atkinson (2000) and Wolters and Daughtery (2007) suggested that self-efficacy among language teachers plays a vital role in teaching.

Moreover, previous studies (Holzberger, Philipp & Kunter, 2013; Hoy & Davis, 2005) suggested that future research on teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy could contribute to improve the quality of education and would have an effective impact on students’ achievement. In these studies, teachers shared their experiences and perceptions on motivation and self-efficacy. Therefore, teacher self-efficacy is a wider term, which needs to be investigated as a key factor affecting teachers’

motivation and students’ performance. The research on teacher motivation was developed and expanded since the late 1990s, and the past decade has witnessed a marked increase in literature on teacher motivation. Past studies (Bess, 1977; de Jesus

& Lens, 2005; Lens & de Jesus, 1999; Sinclair, 2008) have also supported the current study by suggesting that highly motivated teachers show high efficacy levels.

1.10 Significance of the Study

This study has contributed significantly due to the utmost importance of quality teachers in India. Despite the government efforts and commitments to improve the education system in Hyderabad district, there is still a poor performance of government school students in reading comprehension skills, and this has become a serious concern.

1.10.1 Theoretical Significance

Several studies have focused on the effect of teacher motivation (Brookhart &

freeman, 1992; Richardson & Watt, 2007) and self-efficacy on language teaching in

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different subjects. Hoy (1995), Schunk (1990), Ross (1992), and Shaughnessy (2004) have argued that there is a need for teachers to have awareness of their capacity, which affects students’ achievements. The current study will help teachers know about their own capabilities when they enter the classroom. Taking the experiences, perceptions and valuable suggestions of Hyderabad government secondary school teachers, the present study will contribute to the body of knowledge by testing the relationship between teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy and TRCS. In Hyderabad, only few studies have been conducted on teachers’ self-efficacy.

Therefore, the present study makes use of two more theories (i.e., Self-Determination theory and Bandura Theory) to examine the problem under investigation.

Further, Henk and Melnick (1995) acknowledged the importance of motivation and other affective variables in learning to read and write. They used experimental an approach in examining the effect of teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy on teaching math and chemistry. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study has been reported so far, to find out the relationship between teacher motivation, teacher self-efficacy and TRCS in the Indian context. The present study also has a methodological contribution by using a survey design in exploring the teachers’

perceptions on their self-efficacy in TRCS in the government schools of Hyderabad district, Telangana state.

Theoretically, it added to the existing knowledge of research by providing empirical evidence on teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy required for TRCS in the secondary school teachers of Hyderabad district Telangana State in India. Through the

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findings of the present study, teachers will become more knowledgeable in terms of the rudiments of self-efficacy, motivation, and TRCS in their teaching profession.

1.10.2 Practical Significance

First, the expected outcomes of the study revealed that a teacher has direct impact of his/her motivation on teaching and an efficacious teacher can produce successful students both academically and personally. Therefore, the most significant part of this study is that highly motivated and efficient teachers give more importance to the reading skills, by imparting quality education and removing the misconception from society that the government school teachers are not producing good students.

Secondly, the findings of this study would also assist the government to take some initiative to enhance the level of teacher self-efficacy and motivate the teachers intrinsically and extrinsically. Finally, the study would complement the government’s efforts and commitments to provide quality education to government school students through motivated and efficacious teachers. The government should design, various programmes to stimulate, sustain and support teachers to enhance teaching as a profession.

As the current study emphasises the significance of teacher motivation and self- efficacy, the study also provides adequate information on teacher motivation, self- efficacy and TRCS to the Ministry of Education in Hyderabad district, Telangana State. It is important to note that adequate teacher motivation and teacher self-efficacy may improve the quality of education in secondary schools of Telangana State. In this regard, the current study provides adequate information for the ESL teachers and researchers. Teacher motivation is crucial for school development and to improve students’ academic performance. Methodologically, the instruments used in this study

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will also be useful for new researchers, as there is a possibility of adapting it for subsequent studies.

1.11 Telangana State

Telangana, one of the main regions of Andhra Pradesh, formed the 29^th state of India on June 2^nd, 2014 with 10 districts. Hyderabad is one of the 10 districts of Telangana state, and the local languages spoken are Telugu and Urdu. Fig. 1.1 shows the map of India and Fig. 1.2 illustrates the Indian education system.

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Fig: 1.1 Map of India with all States

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Figure 1.2. Indian education system

1.11.1 Indian Education System

The 12^th Plan (2012-2017) of India places significant consideration on expanding education, particularly on improving the quality of education. The quality education imparted by teachers imbibe plenty of opportunities for all spheres of the society. As per the Right to Education (RTE) (2009), all the children who fall under the age (6years -14 years) are free from paying the fee. Primary and upper primary educational levels comprise elementary education (for 11-14-year olds), secondary education (for 14-16-year olds), and higher/senior secondary (for 16-18-year olds).

The objective of RTE is to attain 100% literacy in the country and bring awareness to the citizens on the advantages of education. It is evident that government has a

Secondary School Classes 9-10 Age 14-16 years Upper Primary /Middle

school Classes 6-8 Age-11 years -14 years

Primary school Classes 1-5 Age- 06 years -10 years Pre-School lower and higher

kindergarten (18 months -05 years)

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significant role to play in the system of education in India. Particularly, in the education system in India, there is an utter urgency for improving skills that would increase the manpower ultimately. This can be brought into practice by improving the strength of higher education, which will result in enhancing knowledge and will contribute to economic development in the country.

Secondary education is considered to be an integral part in the development of economic status of a country. Secondary education has an immense impact on the economy in the areas of information technology (Johnson et al., 2012). In government secondary schools in India, the first language is always observed to be the language of the state, and English is the second language.

The secondary education is always found to be critical a phase as it is a transition between higher education and the elementary level of education. It is essential to render quality education, which can be gained from different sources that are accessible in nature and can be afforded by all categories of children. In many schools, inefficient and untrained teachers are made to handle the secondary standard classes. Similarly, trained teachers also face problems in coping with the educational standards. Secondary school education during the 11th Five Year Plan has given a priority for the development of the country from the perspective of a demographic sphere of activity. In order to shape up the efforts, Indian government has initiated a scheme namely ‘Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)’ March 2009.

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1.12 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has taken Indian education under its control as a resource in apex organisation, which was established by Indian government, at New Delhi. NCERT has headquarters in New Delhi for the purpose of advising and assisting the state and central government on matters related to the school and academic education. NCERT extends its support in assisting the technical issues in various schools across India to enforce policies of education.

The prospective aim of NCERT is to provide assistance and recommend the Ministry of Education and social welfare for establishing the policies and initiating programmes in various spheres of education. NCERT takes immense interest in publication drafts to recommend textbooks in schools on various subjects from class 1-12.

1.13 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

NCTE directs and plans for the teacher education system all over India. It manages the law, standards and norms associated with teacher education. The authority granted to the NCTE is wide and it encompasses the complete range of programmes for teacher education involving training and research in primary, elementary, secondary and senior secondary schools.

1.14 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)

ASER is an annual survey that aims to provide reliable estimates of children’s enrolment and a basic learning level in India. It is the only source of data about the

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learning outcomes of the children. The existing model of ASER is adapted by numerous countries around the world: Senegal, Mali, Pakistan, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.

1.15 Operational Definitions of Terms

The operational terms are defined within the thesis are as follows:

1.15.1 Motivation

According to Ryan and Deci (2000), motivation is that which prompts a person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for a specific behaviour. This definition of motivation emphasises the process-oriented perspective of motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is an inherent way that is in-built in a person and affects the behaviour in a positive manner and shows the well-being and performances of the person (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The intrinsic motivation of a teacher complies with rewarding a person personally. Performing an activity essentially requires rewards for the performances. In this study, teacher intrinsic motivation is operationalised on the basis of teachers’ feelings towards their teaching, resources provided to perform their job and the performance of their students.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation results from the attainment of externally administered rewards including pay, material possessions, prestige and positive evaluations (Ryan & Deci

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2000). It occurs when teachers are motivated to perform an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. In this study, teachers’ extrinsic motivation is measured through supportive work environment, job recognition, rewards, and opportunities for personal growth.

1.15.2 Teacher Motivation

Motivation is defined as a process of sustaining the teacher in the teaching job through the rewards (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Teacher motivation relates to the teacher’s efforts to participate and continue in the teaching profession. This term is used to comprehend how teachers are motivated to get into and remain in their profession.

1.15.3 Teacher Self-efficacy

Teacher self-efficacy is teachers’ capacity that is required to perform excellently in the teaching profession (Bandura, 1997). It is one’s feeling of competence as a teacher and how well one believes that one can teach under any circumstances. This term is used to understand the extent to which teachers believe they can teach as well as the confidence they exude in their profession.

Efficacy for instructional strategies: Teachers’ beliefs in their abilities to instruct students and influence students’ performance are very strong indicators of instructional efficacy (AlAlwan & Mahasneh, 2014).

Efficacy for classroom management: Efficacy feelings not only influence teachers’

activities in the classroom, but also help the teachers achieve successful classroom management (Kunter, Schmeck & Leunter, 2014).

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