EXTRACTION OF NATURAL DYES FROM LOCUST BEANS AND TAMARIND FRUITS PODS AND THEIR
FASTNESS PROPERTIES ON COTTON AND SILK FABRICS
IBRAHIM ABDULLAHI UMAR
MASTERS OF ARTS (TEXTILE AND FASHION DESIGN)
2013
Extraction of natural dyes from Locust Beans and Tamarind Fruits Pods and their Fastness Properties of Colorant on
Cotton and Silk fabrics
by
Ibrahim Abdullahi Umar
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts (Textile and Fashion Design)
Faculty of Creative Technology and Heritage UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN
2013
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Specially dedicated to my parent (late Abdullahi Abu-Bakr & jummai Umar)
iii OPE
THESIS DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is the original research and has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution.
AN ACCESS I agree that my thesis is to be made immediately available as hardcopy or on-line open access (full text).
EMBARGOES I agree that my thesis is to be made available as hardcopy or on-line (full text) for a period approved by Post Graduate
Committee.
Date from until
CONFIDENTIAL Contains confidential information under the Office Secret Act 1972
RESTRICTED Contains restricted information as specified by the organization where research was done
I acknowledge that Universiti Malaysia Kelantan reserves the right as follows.
1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Malaysia Kelantan.
2. The library of Universiti Malaysia Kelantan has the right to make copies for the purpose of research only.
3. The library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
IC/PASSPORT NO.NAME OF SUPERVISOR
Date: Date:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Conducting a research cannot be done alone; person has to get professionals,
specialist and some assistance, while conducting this research work, I got them on my way.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to you.
My singular grateful to my supervisors Assoc. Professor Mohammad Najib Bin Moh’d Nor for his guidance, support, encouragement generally to this work and Dr Wong Yee Ching who shows professional advices, and constructive suggestion regarding this study, may the almighty ALLAH, shower his blessing on you.
More over I would like to thank Mr Muhammad Nasruddin Bin Mustaffa Kamal Assistant Director, Malaysian Handicraft Development Corporation, Koto Bharu Branch, Kelantan. The laboratory Assistance, Cik Faridah Bt Mat Nor, and her colleagues both in the laboratory in kraftangan, development corporation. Special thanks to my wife (Hajara A. Musa) and the children (Ismail, Balkisu, Asmau,Abubakar Sadiq,& Nana Khadija) for their patient, prayers and good wishes.
My warm regards to my brother & friends Abubakar M. Miyim, Hussaini Idi, Abdulkarim El- Ladan, Mr Olarere Folasauo Enoch, Mal. Ado Makama, Mal.Hassan Jibrin, Haji Ibrahim Bura, Umar Gidado and Magaji, for their cooperation and advices, may the Almighty ALLAH blessed you all. Many thanks to the Centre for Post graduate Studies, UMK, especially, Dr Madayan Intan, Pn Aisha Yusop and other colleagues in the centre.
Not the least, I am grateful to Sulaiman Mahdi, Dr M.M Baba, Haji Yusuf, Mahmod & Other well wishers thank you all and God bless.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
DEDICATION ii
THESIS DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGES iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
ABSTRAK xiii
ABSTRACT xv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.1.1 Types of dyes and their problems 1
1.2 Fastness Properties of color/dyes 3
1.3 Sources of natural dyes 3
1.3.1 Locust beans (fruits pods) as a source of natural dyes 4 1.3.2 Tamarind tree (fruits pods) as a source of natural dyes 7
1.4 The problem statement. 9
1.5 The Aims & objectives of this study 10
1.6 The significance of this study. 10
1.7 The hypothesis of this study. 11
1.8 The scope of this study. 11
1.9 Limitation of the study 12
1.10 Thesis outline 12
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The history of ancient dyes and dyeing. 14
2.2 The modern dyeing industry. 16
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2.2.1 Types of synthetic dye. 23
2.3 The methods of extraction and dyeing with natural dyes 23
2.3.1 Methods of extraction of natural dyes. 25
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction. 37
3.2 Materials and equipment used in this study. 38
3.3 Extraction and dyeing illustration procedure. 40
3.4 The procedure for the extraction of color fromthefruitspods and dyeing. 41 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 44
4.2 Evaluation of Colour fastness 45
4.2.1 Locust beans and Tamarind fruits pods extracted in aqueous medium 50 combination.
4.2.2 Locust beans and Tamarind fruits pods extracted in Methanol 106 combination
4.2.3 Locust beans and Tamarind fruits pods extracted in Ethanol 160 combination
4.3 Discussion of the Results. 215
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
5.1 Conclusion 221
5.2 Research Findings 223
5.3 Future Work 226
5.4 Summary 226
REFERENCE 229
APPENDICES 236
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LIST OF TABLES
NO.
4.1a Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods on Cotton fabric
PAGE 54 in aqueouscombination
4.1b Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods on Silk fabric in aqueous combination
55
4.2a Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits pods extract on Cotton fabric in aqueous combination.
80
4.2 b Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits pods extract on Silk fabric in aqueous combination.
81
4.3a Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods extract on Cotton fabric in methanol combination.
109
4.3b Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods extract on Silk fabric in methanol combination.
110
4.4 a Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits pods extract dyed on Cotton fabric in methanol combination.
136
4.4b Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits pods extract dyed on silk fabric in methanol combination.
137
4.5a Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods extract dyed on Cotton fabric in ethanol combination.
163
4.5b Fastness grades of Locust beans fruits pods extract dyed on silk fabric in ethanol combination.
164
4.6a Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits podsextract dyed on Cotton fabric in ethanolcombination.
189
4.6b Fastness grades of Tamarind fruits pods extract dyed on Cotton fabric in ethanolcombination.
190
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LIST OF FIGURES
NO
PAGE
1.1 Locust beans tree 5
1.2 Tamarind tree 7
2.1 Structure of azo dyes 19
3.1 Illustration of extraction and dyeing procedure 40
3.2 Locust beans fruits. 42
3.3 Opening of the locust beans fruits to remove the seeds and powder. 42
3.4 Sun drying the locust beans fruits pods. 42
3.5 The locust beans sieved powders. 42
3.6 The dried and grinded tamarind fruits pods. 43
4.1 The washing machine (Linitest). 46
4.2 The light fastness test machine (Xenotest 220). 47
4.3 The rubbing machine (Crockmeter). 48
4.4 The perspiration device used for the test. 49
4.5 The grey scales. 49
4.6 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 56 4.7 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 58 4.8 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 60 4.9 Light fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 62 4.10 Dry rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 64 4.11 Dry rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 66 4.12 Wet rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 68 4.13 Wet rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans extract. 70 4.14 Perspiration test in acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 72
in aqueous extract
4.15 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 74 in aqueous extract.
4.16 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with 76 locust beans pods in aqueousextract.
4.17 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with 78 locust beans pods inaqueous extract.
4.18 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind podsIn 83 aqueous extract.
4.19 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind podsin 85 aqueous extract.
4.20 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind in pods 87 aqueousextract.
4.21 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind Pods in 89 aqueous extract.
4.22 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 91 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.23 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 93 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.24 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 95 Podsin aqueous extract.
4.25 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 97 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.26 Perspiration testin acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 99 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.27 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 101 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.28 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 103 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.29 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 105 Pods in aqueous extract.
4.30 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 112 podsextractin Methanol medium combination.
4.31 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans pods in 114 methanol extract.
4.32 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 116 pods in methanol extract.
4.33 Light fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 118 Pods in methanol extract.
4.34 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 120 podsin methanol extract.
4.35 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 122 Pods in methanol extract.
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in ethanol extract.
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4.36 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 124 pods in methanol extract.
4.37 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 126 pods in methanol extract.
4.38 Perspiration test in acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 128 Pods in methanol extract.
4.39 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 130 Pods in methanol extract.
4.40 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with 132 locust beans Pods in methanol extract.
4.41 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with 134 locust beans pods in methanol extract.
4.42 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 138 Pods in methanol extract.
4.43 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind pods 140 in methanol extract.
4.44 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 142 podsin methanol extract.
4.45 Light fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 144 podsin methanol extract.
4.46 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 146 Podin methanol extract.
4.47 Dry rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 148 Podsin methanol extract.
4.48 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 150 podsin methanol extract.
4.49 Wet rubbing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 152 podsin methanol extract.
4.50 Perspiration test in acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 154 pods in methanol extract.
4.51 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 156 pods in methanol extract.
4.52 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 158 pods In methanol extract.
4.53 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 160 podsIn methanol extract.
4.54 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 165
in ethanol extract.
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4.55 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 167 in ethanol extract.
4.56 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 169 in ethanol extract.
4.57 Light fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 171 in ethanol extract.
4.58 Dry rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 173 in ethanol extract.
4.59 Dry rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 175 in ethanol extract.
4.60 Wet rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 177 in ethanol extract.
4.61 Wet rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 179 in ethanol extract.
4.62 Perspiration test in acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with locust beans 181 in ethanol extract.
4.63 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 183 in ethanol extract.
4.64 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with 185 locust beansin ethanol extract.
4.65 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with locust beans 187 in ethanol extract.
4.66 Washing fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind pods 192 in ethanol extract.
4.67 Washing fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind pods 194 in ethanol extract.
4.68 Light fastness test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind pods 196 in ethanol extract.
4.69 Light fastness test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind pods 198 in ethanol extract.
4.70 Dry rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 200 pods in ethanol extract.
4.71 Dry rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 202 Podsin ethanol extract.
4.72 Wet rubbing test graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 204 podsin ethanol extract.
4.73 Wet rubbing test graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind pods 206
4.74 Perspiration test in acid graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 208 Pods in ethanol extract.
4.75 Perspiration test in acid graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 210 Pods in ethanol extract.
4.76 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on cotton fabric dyed with tamarind 212 Pods in ethanol extract.
4.77 Perspiration test in alkaline graph on silk fabric dyed with tamarind 214 Pods in ethanol extract.
5.1 Illustration on the fulfillment of the objectives of the study 224
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Pengekstrakanpewarna semula jadi daripadaKacangLocustdan Tamarinddengan ciri ketahanan mereka terhadap kelunturan warna padakapasdan kainsutera
Abstrak
Pokok-pokok kacang Locust (Parkiabiglobosa /Filicoidea) dan Tamarind (Tamarindusindica) biasanya ditanam di kawasan tropika. Kedua-dua pokok tersebut dan buahnya memainkan peranan penting terutama dalam menyediakan hidangan makanan, minuman dan tujuan komersial serta nilai-nilai perubatan. Kebiasaannya, kulit buah bagi tumbuhan tersebut dibuang selepas proses pengeluaran biji, serbuk serta isinya. Kulit buah- buahan bagi tumbuhan tersebut apabila direndam dalam air akan menghasilkan warna coklat / merah jambu yang berpotensi mencemarkan air sungai yang mendatangkan bahaya kepada hidupan akuatik. Pewarna sintetik juga menimbulkan ancaman kepada kehidupan manusia, mencemarkan alam sekitar kita ini. Kini, negara Nigeria telah dibelenggu oleh masalah pencemaran alam sekitar yang kian merisaukan. Oleh yang demikian, masyarakat antarabangsa diseru untuk memberi perhatian segera serta menggesa negara-negara yang terbabit untuk menggunakan alternatif lain bagi menggantikan pewarna sintetik ini contohnya seperti penggunaan pewarna semula jadi. Dalam usaha untuk mencari penyelesaian yang berkekalan terhadap pencemaran alam sekitar yang disebabkan oleh kulit buah yang dibuang, Kitar semual kulit buah ini juga mewujudkan alternatif kepada penggantian penggunaan pewarna sintetik yang dapat mendatangkan kesan negatif terhadap alam sekitar. kajian ini menyelidik mengenai potensi menggunakan warna coklat / merah jambu yang dikeluarkan oleh kulit buah tersebut sebagai pewarna tekstil. Kajian ini mengekstrakkan warna coklat / merah jambu sebagai pewarna semulajadi dan digunakan ke atas kapas (popelin) dan Sutera (Habotai). Kaedah yang digunakan untuk pengekstrakan menggunakan air suling dan pelarut organik (menggunakan metanol / etanol). Kulit buah kacang Locust dan Tamarind diperolehi dari Nigeria dan Malaysia masing-masing dibuka, dikering dan dikisar menjadi serbuk serta disaring untuk mendapat saiz yang lebih kecil daripada diameter 200mm. 200gramms serbuk dari setiap kulit buah tersebut diambil dan direndam dalam 1800 millilitres air suling dan pelarut organik daripada (Methanol / Etanol) semalaman untuk memperoleh 100 milllitres warna turasan tersebut. Oleh itu, 1.2 kg memberikan 600 milllitres daripada hasil turasan telah dimasukkan ke dalam 1200 milllitres air suling yang akan digunakan untuk pencelupan fabrik (30 × 30 sentimeter setiap satu). 1.0gm / m³ daripada mordants daripada tawas, kuprum (II) sulfat, ferum (II) sulfat dan ferum (III) sulfat diperolehi untuk proses pencelupan. Kaedah rawatan Pra- Mordanting, Serentak-Mordanting, Post-Mordanting dan Tanpa-Mordanting telah dijalankan semasa proses pencelupan. Untuk kajian ini 400 milllitres dari setiap ekstrak
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telah digunakan untuk pencelupan dan di samping itu juga 100 milllitres dari setiap mordants telah digunakan semasa mewarna untuk membantu pewarna bagi kompleks penyelarasan yang betul dengan gentian dalam fabrik. Pencelupan ini dijalankan pada 100 ⁰ C untuk 10 minutes, 20 minutes dan 30 minutes. Kain dicelup telah dibasuh dengan bahan pencuci (Boom), dibilas dengan air suling, naungan kering bersedia untuk ujian kubu membasuh, pendedahan kepada kubu cahaya, menggosok dan peluh. Sampel yang diuji telah digred dan penemuan mendedahkan bahawa ekstrak dari kulit kacang Locust dan Tamarind boleh digunakan untuk mewarna tekstil ke atas 100% kapas mercerised dan kain sutera. Ini adalah kerana nilai-nilai gred untuk membasuh adalah 4-5, pendedahan cahaya 6 - 8 / menggosok ujian 4-5 dan peluh juga 4-5. Ini adalah nilai-nilai gred yang diterima pakai oleh Perbadanan Pembangunan Kraftangan, cawangan Kelantan, Malaysia.
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Extraction of natural dyes from Locust Beans and Tamarind Fruit Pods and their Fastness Properties of colorant on Cotton and Silk Fabrics.
Abstract.
Locust beans (Parkiabiglobosa/Filicoidea) and Tamarind (Tamarindusindica) are trees grown in most tropical region. They are multipurpose trees with fruits that play a vital role most especially in preparing food delicacy, drinks and commercial purpose as well as for medical values. The fruits pods of locust beans and tamarind trees are normally discarded after opening to remove the seeds, powder and the pasty parts of the fruits for use. The pods when soaked in water releases brownish/pinkish colour which is harmful to aquatic life. The synthetic dyes/colours also poses a threats to human life, pollutes our environment The synthetic dyes/colorant poses a threats to human life, pollutes our environment and this coupled with Nigerian problems of scarcity of dyes, cost of importation, environmental pollution and unemployment opportunities. Therefore, the international community called for urgent attention, urging nations to go back to the re- used of natural dyes to served as an alternatives to this menaced. In order to find a lasting solution to environmental pollution caused by the discarded pods and also create alternative to the harmful synthetic dyes; this study researches on the potential of using the brownish/pinkish colour released by the pods as textile dyes. This study extracts the brownish/pinkish colour as natural dyes and applied them on cotton (Poplin) and Silk (Habotai). The method adopted for the extraction were aqueous (using distil water) and solvent (using Methanol/Ethanol). The fruits of locust beans and tamarind were obtained from Nigeria and Malaysia respectively, which was opened, dried grinded into powder form and sieved to obtained smaller size diameter of 200mm. One(1) kilogram of each fruit pods powder were obtained , whereby 200grammes from each fruit pods powder was taken and soaked in 1.8litres of distil water and the solvents of (Methanol/Ethanol) overnight to obtained 100millilitres of the filtrate colour. Therefore, 1200grammes (1.2kilogrammes) gave 600millilitres of the (paste) filtrate, which was added to 7.2litres of distil water to be used for the dyeing of the fabrics (30×30 centimetres each). Also 1.0gm/m³ of mordants of Alum, Copper (II) Sulphate, Iron (II) Sulphate, and Iron (III) Sulphate were obtained for dyeing process. The treatment methods of Pre-Mordanting, Simultaneous-Mordanting, Post-Mordanting and Without-Mordanting were carried out during the dyeing processes.
For this study 400millilitres from each extract was used for the dyeing and in addition 100millilitres also from each mordants was used during dyeing in order to assist the dye for
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proper coordination complexes with fibres in the fabrics. The dyeing was conducted at 100⁰C for 10minutes, 20minutes and 30minutes. The dyed fabrics were washed with detergent (Boom), rinsed with running water (distilled), shade dried to be ready for fastness test of washing , exposure to light fastness, rubbing and perspiration. The tested samples fabrics were graded and the findings reveal that the extract from locust beans and tamarind fruits pods can be used for textile coloration on 100% mercerised cotton and silk fabrics, because the graded values for washing was 4-5, light exposure 6-8, rubbing 4-5 and perspiration tests was also 4-5. These are acceptable grade values of Kraftangan Development Corporation, Kota Bharu branch, Kelantan, Malaysia, where the fastness tests was conducted.
1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study.
The dyes are substances which when applied to fabric surfaces are expected to adhere firmly, therefore, Dyes are coloured substance that has affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied; it can also be defined as any natural or synthetic substance used to add a colour to or change the colour of something (Oxford dictionary, 2012).
1.1.1 Types of dyes and their problems.
There are two types of dyes namely: synthetic and natural dyes.
i. Natural dyes: are the types of dyes normally obtained from vegetables, plant parts (leaves, roots, stems, & fruits), minerals and insects. These type of dyes were in use throughout civilisation and up-till today are being used in some remote corners of the world to produce some traditional/native clothes, jute fibres; for making local bags and mats, but are no longer in used by modern dyeing industries. Such type of dyes includes indigo, madder, ochre, catechu,
2
saffron, henna, alizarin, and animals dyes such as kermes, cochineal, lac from fish. The mineral dyes are Prussian blue, chrome producing yellow, iron having buff (Hobhouse, 1985). However, the natural dyes have certain limitations such as longer time of extraction and dyeing; low colour value and fastness; few types of colour shades.
Even though natural dyes have limitations on the beauty, bright and fastness of colour on fabrics, yet they are easily renewable, available, non-allergic to the skin, non-toxic and very compatible with the environment.
ii. Synthetic dyes: refers to dyes obtained from coal tar (a by-product of petroleum). There is many categorise of synthetic dyes depending on the type of chemical combinations and their applications. Such dyes are acid, basic, oxides, pre-metalized, direct, chrome, azoic, sulphur, disperse, reactive, vat, dyes to mention etc. Almost all the synthetic dyes are daily undergoing modification just to add to the beauty, in terms of brilliancy, cheap to be obtained and applied to increase the strength of colours and fastness. However, the daily production and application of these dyes have been showing threat to our environment by damaging the plants in terms of growth and good yield, killing the aquatic animals, affecting human life, causing skin cancer (Gilbert & David, 2000; Adeel et al., 2009 & Shahid et al., 2009).Therefore, there is the need to search for immediate alternative source of dyes, which was suggested by the international community
3
that nations should go back to the re-used of natural dyes which are better to the environment, does not cause any danger to the human life, because it is non-toxic, non-allergic to the skin, readily available and easily renewable,(Pruthi et al, 2006; Saha & Dutta 2007;
Onal,1996).
1.2 Fastness Properties of Colour: The fastness properties of colorant is the resistance of a materials to change its colour characteristics or extent of transfer of its colorants to adjacent white materials in touch stated by Samanta &
Agarwal, (2009).It can also be referred as the resistance of any colour from fading, or the ability of any colour to withstand any activities that may leads to its removal from the surface that was applied on, especially fabrics.
The most important beauty of any cloth is the fastness of its colour and consumer satisfaction. Generally washing fastness, light fastness, rubbing fastness, and perspiration fastness are the colour fastness considered for textile fabrics.
1.3 Sources of natural dyes.
For the past 25years a lot of plant‘s leaves in many countries have been injured, caused by synthesis of petrochemical sources (Jeannie Allen, 2002). It was also reported that all synthetic colorants being synthesized from petrochemical sources poses a threat to its eco-friendliness (Samanta & Konar, 2011). Therefore, it is certain that synthetic production and application causes a
4
lot of damages to our environment. It is on this footnote the global call suggested the re-used of an eco-friendly and biodegradable natural materials that this research work focuses on using two of the famous plants (trees).
1.3.1 Locust beans fruit (pods) as a source of natural dyes
Locust beans An Answer to Africa‘s Greatest Needs in One Tree also known as Parkiabiglobosa/filicoidea in Africa (Fig.1.1a) and tamarind tree. The trees are multipurpose trees which are equally valued as the Shea butter trees (Takemasa, et al, 2007)
In Africa, especially the Western Sahara and Nigeria in particular, these plants play vital role both in preparing food delicacy and commercial purpose. The trees belong to the families of mimosiodeae and that, of leguminosae (now known as family of fabaceae) respectively. They grow in the savannah region of West Africa up to the southern edge of the Sahel zone 13⁰NE, according to (Campbell-platt, 1980).A matured locust bean tree (20-30 years) can bear about a ton and above of harvested fruits (Akande, et al, 2010), the tree start to bear fruits from five to seven years after planting as stated by Musa, (1991).The most important use of African locust beans is found in its seed, which is a grain legume, although it has other uses apart from its commercial values, especially the seeds which serves as a source of ingredients for consumption (Campbell-platt, 1980).
5
Figure 1.1a: The locust beans tree & Fruits
According to Akande, et al, (2010) the husks and pods are good feed for livestock and traditionally are used to extract substance that helps to harden traditionally made house floors. It can also be an important source of tannin for leather. The fruit is a yellowish powdery substance which has found a place in preparing a local delicacy (gruel) called kunu that can be taken and at the same time used as feed for pigs after the extractable parts (Musa,1991).
The harvesting and processing of the fruit (locust bean) undergoes a series of processes and it was observed that these processes done manually thereby making the processing of the locust beans seeds into food condiment longer and very tedious. According to Sina &
Traore, (2002) the African locust beans seeds contain 26% protein and a high degree of calcium, yielding16.8% of a fixed oil. Ripe seeds are considered to be aphrodisiac.
They further stressed that the seed could be used as a coffee beans substitute, unripe seeds and leaves are eaten as vegetables. The locust beans fruit (pods) contains 12-14% tannin and this two tannin reports on the fruit pods observed by the researcher signals that the fruit
6
pods can be used as dyes which is the main focus of this project work.
The seed pods are used as fish poison while the prepared roots yield a fibrous mass which are made into sponges and the tree trunk while branches are used as fuel for cooking. The trees are grown in most tropical areas of the world reported by Sina & Traore, (2002).
The locust beans fruit(pods) after de-hauling, the empty pods are thrown away in most places in west Africa especially in the northern Nigeria, and this also contribute negatively to the environment, but nevertheless research efforts are geared towards possible ways of recycling these waste for re-use to keep the environment clean and safe.
The small and medium scale industries have the greatest potential for this re-use of the husk pods because they use large quantities of natural materials annually stated by Basha et al, (2002). Also reported by Yisa &
Jimoh, (2010) that the extract can be obtained when the pods husks is boiled in water and a reddish brown colour is usually obtained which have been used only for mixing clay tiles for local floor construction and finishing (brownish/pinkish filtrates colour Figure A.1).
It is now evident, based on this extract that this research work focuses on exploring the reddish brown colour to be re-used as natural colour/dyes and only fastness properties of this colorant on fabric especially on natural fabrics such as cotton and silk can confirmed the usage of this plant as dyes. With the advent of technological developments and modern industrialised methods of extraction,
7
improvements can be made for making designs (printing, batik, and tie/dyed).
1.3.2 Tamarind Plant (tamarindusindica) as a Source of Natural Dyes
As for the tamarind tree (tamarindusindica sweet & sour) (Fig.
1.1b), is also a legume family, which according to Mortan, (1987) is a long-lived medium growth plant, of average height between 12-18 metres (40-60 feet).It grows well in full sun, clay, loamy, sandy, and acidic types of soil.
Figure 1.1b: Tamarind tree and fruits
The tree leaves are evergreen, bright green in colour, elliptical in shape, with an alternate arrangement. It is a pinnate compound type, and has a drop branches from a single central trunk, produces flowers with red and yellow flowers of about 2.5cm wide, which later turn into fruits of about 12-15cm in length. The fruits (sweet & sour) has a hard brown shell when fully ripe; the seeds content varies in numbers from one country to another enclosed in a paste which are brown in colour.
