CAREER MATURITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM LOW-INCOME ENVIRONMENT:

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CAREER MATURITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM LOW-INCOME ENVIRONMENT:

IDENTIFYING PREDICTORS OF CAREER MATURITY AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY STUDENTS IN WAJIR

COUNTY KENYA

BY

NOOR MOHAMED ABDINOOR

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Kulliyyah of Education

International Islamic University Malaysia

MARCH 2021

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of the current study was to explore the personal and environment factors that influence career maturity of senior secondary students from low-income family environment. The main objective of the study was to determine whether personal factors including age, gender, self-concept, and environment factors such as socio-economic status, parental support and parents` level of education would significantly predict career maturity of senior secondary students from low-income environment.

Furthermore, the study also examined the mediating role of career self-efficacy (CDMSEF) between parental support, self-concept and career maturity. Attaining Career Maturity is very vital for secondary school students because career choice made at this stage can have ever-lasting impact on an individual’s life. The study used quantitative survey method and collected data using survey questionnaires. The population for this study was all senior secondary students (form three and four) from Wajir County, Kenya. Simple random sampling was used to select respondents. A total of 525 senior students from five secondary schools completed the survey. The major analytical tools and procedure used were Multiple Regression Analysis and full-fledge SEM modeling. MRA analyses indicates father`s education level of the environmental factors accounting for significance variance of career maturity. Furthermore, all measurement models reported adequate goodness of fit. The Full-fledge SEM analysis on the proposed model reported fair fit indices with self-concept predicting strongly career maturity. Findings indicate mediating role of career self-efficacy. The study indicates that students’ career prospect and their knowledge about different occupations was minimal.

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ثحــــبلا ةصلاــــــــخ

ر للا لا ا لا لاةةةةةةلعةةةةةةالا ماشيلا ووةةةةةةا لةةةةةةسا شك لالوهلا لةةةةةةساردلا نم ضرغلا نإ ود لا دلا لةةةةةةةةةةةةةةضةعنم لا دو ل اخ نم وا يلا ليش وملا ل لر لا ناثل ةاحشلا ةةةةةةةةةةةةةةضنلا ةةةةةسادرلا ماش لن و خ لاةةةةةلعةةةةةالا ماشيلا و وا انإ وم ديده شك لةةةةةساردلا هذك نم نيدلاشلا لي وةةةةةةةةةةةةةةلل عا لةا وة ليعا لةلوةهلا ةمم لة ا لا اذةلا مش ة لا سنجلا ر يلا ليش وملا ل لر لا ناثل ةاحشلا ةةةةةةضنلوخ را ا ةةةةةةاخ ب نللةةةةةةس رشمتا روال ا ي مشلةةةةةةسم دلا ل اخ نم وا يلا ضةعن لا

ر ه لوخ و رةةةةةةةةضي لةةةةةةةساردلا ومو ، لن ة ا

لاةاحشلا لا اذلا ةروة لا لاوةةةةةةةةةةةةةةسشلا CDMSEF

اذلا مش ة لا نيدلاشلا ناخ )

ليش وملا راد لا ناثل لا كتا الوخ رارم ةاحشلا ةةةةةةةةةةةضنلا ظاله ديي ةاحشلا ةةةةةةةةةةةضنلا لر لا هذك لن لا روال ا نت رارظ ومدعلةةةسا رةلا ةوال دا را ب هل نش ي د ل

سو وا لةةةةةةسعا مادعلةةةةةةسوخ لي ج لا سو وا لا لا يةةةةةةس لا لليرا لةةةةةةساردلا اا عا ي

ن

وةا يلا لةيش وةملا لة لر لا ) ش وةملا لةييارلا لةملوةملا

رايا لةياوةلم نم Wajir County

،)

واناا لةةةةةةةةسارّدلا ع لجم نش م ي شةةةةةةةةا لنا مادعلةةةةةةةةسا

نااروةةةةةةةةا لا روال ع لثاةةةةةةةةسخ لادا

ه ش جم يةةةةةةةس لا لةةةةةةةسا لةةةةةةةس علا ليش وملا راد لا ناا نم رو لوا 525

نش م ي ك

لسارّدلا لنا راده عا ا ه ك لمدعلس لا لاسادرلا لا ا هللا ساراريلإا سا تا و وا

ديل لا Multiple Regression Analysis

ليذ ) SEM

ل مو لا full-

fledge SEM modeling ساا ه راةةةةا )

MRA نتا ا ي مشلةةةةسم ن لإ

عا ي ، لن ة ا ةاحشلا ةةضنلا وال ا را ا را ب و ل للا لا ا لا ماشيلا نم لإ سروةةةةةةةةةةةش واللا جنو و

ا ه و داي ةةةةةةةةةةةاخ ل ةةةةةةةةةةةسونم SEM

مو لا

دام سارش م شي دن ه حرلل لا جنش نلا ةاح ض شي ع شلي اذلا مش ة لا عم ل

ش لان لا لا اذلا ةروة لا لاوةةةسشلا ر لإ دولنلا راةةةا

و ا ردلا راةةةا ن لإ لةةةسا

ل ا ض و وا لة لع لا ن لا لشل رويم ناث ل لان لا سوي شللا

رادي

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APPROVAL PAGE

The dissertation of Noor Mohamed Abdinoor has been approved by the following:

_____________________________

Mohd Burhan Ibrahim Supervisor

_____________________________

Khamsiah Ismail Co-Supervisor

_____________________________

Siti Rafiah Abdul Hamid Internal Examiner

_____________________________

Sapora Sipon External Examiner

_____________________________

Nabilah Abdullah External Examiner

_____________________________

Mohamad Naqib Eishan Jan Chairman

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Noor Mohamed Abdinoor

Signature... Date………

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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

CAREER MATURITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM LOW-INCOME ENVIRONMENT: IDENTIFYING PREDICTORS OF CAREER MATURITY AMONG SENIOR

SECONDARY STUDENTS IN WAJIR COUNTY KENYA

I declare that the copyright holders of this dissertation are jointly owned by the student and IIUM.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Noor Mohamed Abdinoor

……….. ……..………..

Signature Date

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise is due to Allaah. We praise Him, seek His help, and ask His forgiveness.

With gratitude and appreciation, I take his opportunity to acknowledge the heartfelt commitment and dedication of individuals who assisted me to complete this project. I am truly grateful to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Burhan Ibrahim for his wisdom, timely advice and patience with me. May Allah reward you for your consideration and support.

You stood with me despite the difficulties I was facing during this time. Without your support I would not have been able to complete this dissertation. All I say to you is

“Jazaka Allahu Qeyraan”. Similarly, I express my gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Ssekamanya Siraje for his insight, guidance and inspiration at the inception of this project. Special thanks Assoc. Prof. Dr. Khamsiah Binti Ismail for her encouragement.

I would also like to appreciate invaluable input from members of thesis examination panel: Prof. Dr. Mohammad Naqib Eishan Jan, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nabilah Abdullah, Prof.

Datin Dr. Sapora Sipon, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Siti Rafiah Binti Abdul Hamid and the Academic Secretariat Bro Muhammad Ihsan Abdul Razak.

The support of my colleagues and friends was amazing and greatly appreciated.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to bro Awadh Muhammad Awadh for his endless commitment and dedications. May Allah bless you abundantly. In addition, I would like to appreciate Prof. Shuriye for his wise advice and support. Also, special thanks is to brothers Muhyadin Abdulkadir (Mowlana), Mohamed Abdikarim (Makawi), Bro Arafat and bro Mohamud (Al-Muridi) for their support. Also, let me express my gratitude to Prof. Ahmed A. O. Warfa, the CEO of my work place for his support, courage and consideration.

Finally, I would like to thank members of my family for their continuous encouragement, support and generosity. Importantly, I owe my deepest gratitude to my mother for her continuous prayers and concern. I should not forget to acknowledge principals of high schools, teachers and students who participated in the study and helped me in collecting data. I am truly thankful and grateful to you all for your support throughout this entire process.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 32

2.2 Guidance Need Of Young Adults ... 33

2.3 Transition of High School Students to Post-Secondary Education or Employment ... 38

2.4 Conceptualizing Important Constructs ... 40

2.4.1 Career Maturity ... 40

2.4.2 Career Exploration: The Heart of Career Readiness ... 43

2.4.3 Occupational Information ... 45

2.4.4 Career Self-Efficacy of Adolescence and Career Choice ... 46

2.4.5 Career Self-Efficacy and Gender ... 49

2.4.6 Social Support and Career Development ... 50

2.4.7 Father`s Involvement in Child Development in Kenya ... 56

2.4.8 Self Concept ... 59

2.5 Career Development Interventions: Best Practices ... 60

2.5.1 Work Based Intervention ... 64

2.5.2 Advising Intervention ... 64

2.5.3 Introductory Intervention ... 65

2.5.4 Curriculum-Based Intervention ... 65

2.6 Theories of Career Development ... 66

2.6.1 Structural Theories ... 69

2.6.2 Developmental Theories ... 71

2.6.3 Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) ... 78

2.6.4 Social Learning Theory ... 80

2.7 Other Theories ... 81

2.7.1 Attribution theory ... 81

2.7.2 Joining theory in Counselling ... 82

2.8 Theoretical Framework ... 83

2.9 Summary ... 84

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ... 85

3.2 Research Design ... 85

3.3 Description of the Participants... 86

3.3.1 Population ... 88

3.3.2 Sample ... 88

3.4 Research Methods ... 90

3.4.1 Data Collection Procedures ... 90

3.4.2 Measurement Instruments ... 92

3.4.3 Data Preparations ... 98

3.4.4 Data Analysis Procedures ... 99

3.5 Pilot Testing ... 100

3.6 Hypothesized Model ... 101

3.7 Summary ... 103

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS ... 104

4.2 Initial Analysis ... 104

4.2.1 Descriptive of Demographics ... 104

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4.2.2 Assumptions ... 106

4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis ... 114

4.3.1 Suitability of the data ... 115

4.3.2 Sample Size for Factor Analysis ... 116

4.3.3 Assessing Normality, Linearity and Outliers ... 116

4.4 Primary Analysis ... 126

4.4.1 Predictors of career maturity ... 126

4.5 Assessment Of Measurement Model ... 131

4.5.1 Treatment of Missing Data ... 132

4.5.2 Reliability of Constructs ... 134

4.5.3 Linearity of the variables ... 135

4.5.4 Assessment of Measurement Model ... 136

4.6 Confirmatory Factor Analysis ... 138

4.6.1 Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale (CDMSE) ... 139

4.6.2 Career-related Parent Support Scale (CRPSS) ... 143

4.6.3 Piers Harris Children`s Self Concept Scale (CSCS) ... 148

4.6.4 Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) ... 152

4.7 Specifying The Structural Model... 156

4.7.1 Assessment of the Overall Fit ... 156

4.7.2 Path Analysis ... 162

4.7.3 Mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy ... 164

4.7.5 Career Awareness of the participants ... 165

4.8 Summary ... 166

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ... 168

5.2 Summary of the Results ... 169

5.3 Discussion of Findings ... 172

5.3.1 Predictors of Career Maturity... 172

5.3.2 Hypothesized Model and Path Analysis ... 175

5.3.3 Role of Career-related Parental Support ... 175

5.3.4 Role of Self-Concept ... 177

5.3.5 Role of the mediating variable Career Decision-Making Self- Efficacy ... 178

5.3.6 Level of Career Awareness ... 179

5.4 Implications and Recommendations ... 180

5.5 Conclusion ... 183

REFERENCES ... 185

APPENDIX A: PERMISSION FOR DATA COLLECTION ... 194

APPENDIX B: RESIDUALS STATISTICS ... 198

APPENDIX C: CORRELATION MATRIX FOR CRPSS SCALE ... 200

APPENDIX D: ANTI-CORRELATION MATRIX FOR CRPSS SCALE ... 201

APPENDIX E: CATELLS SCREE PLOT FOR CRPSS SCALE ... 202

APPENDIX F: ROTATED COMPONENT MATRIX FOR PARENTAL SUPPORT SCALE ... 203

APPENDIX G: CORRELATION CO-EFFICIENT FOR CDMSES ... 204

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APPENDIX H: FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR CDMSES SCALE ... 206

APPENDIX I: CORRELATION MATRIX FOR SELF-CONCEPT SCALE .. 207

APPENDIX J: FACTOR EXTRACTION FOR SELF-CONCEPT SCALE ... 211

APPENDIX K: CATELS SCREE PLOT FOR CSCS ... 213

APPENDIX L: KMO AND BARLETTS TEST FOR CMI ... 214

APPENDIX M: FACTOR EXTRACTION FOR CMI ... 215

APPENDIX N: MI INDICES FOR CDMSE ... 217

APPENDIX O: CATELLS SCREE PLOT FOR CMI ... 219

APPENDIX P: MODIFICATION INDICES FOR CSCS ... 220

APPENDIX Q: MODIFICATION INDICES FOR CMI ... 222

APPENDIX R: CORRELATIONS COEFFICIENTS CSPS AND CDMSES ... 225

APPENDIX S: LEVENE`S TEST OF EQUALITY OF ERROR VARIANCES ... 226

APPENDIX T: TESTS BETWEEN SUBJECTS OF EFFECTS ... 227

APPENDIX U: SRC TABLE FOR OVERALL FIT MODEL 1 ... 228

APPENDIX V: MI TABLE FOR OVERALL FIT MODEL 1 ... 238

APPENDIX W: TOTAL EFFECT OF PATH ANALYSIS ... 239

APPENDIX X: DIRECT EFFECT EFFECT-SQUARED MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS ... 240

APPENDIX Y: PARTICIPANTS LEVEL OF AWARENESS ABOUT OCCUPATIONS ... 241

APPENDIX Z: QUESTIONAIRE ... 244

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 Super`s developmental life span 74

2.2 Super Career Maturity Model 83

4.1 Demographics 105

4.2 Summary of categorical variables 107

4.3 Age assessment of normality 109

4.4 Normality test (CSCS, CMI, CDMSE) 111

4.5 Multivariate normality 111

4.6 Reliability coefficient for CRPSS 112

4.7 Reliability for CDMSE 112

4.8 Correlation coefficients of variables 113

4.9 FA analysis of CRPSS 119

4.10 Parallel analysis for CPRSS scale 121

4.11 Parallel analysis CDMSE 123

4.12 Correlations between dependent variables and the predictor 130

4.13 Standard regression coefficients (betas) 131

4.14 Cronbach`s Alpha Coefficients for all scales 135

4.15 Loading difference between CFA and Structural model assessment 161

4.16 Correlation Matrix for latent variables 163

4.17 Effect size of the mediating variable 164

4.18 Frequency of career awareness 165

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

2.1 The life-career rainbow 75

3.1 Data preparation process 99

3.2 Hypothesized model 102

4.1 Normal distribution of data for CRPSC 109

4.2 Normal Q-Q plot for continuous variable age 110

4.3 CDMSE Measurement Model 1 140

4.4 CDMSE Measurement Model 2 142

4.5 CRPSS Measurement Model 1 144

4.8 CSCS Measurement Model 1 149

4.9 CSCS Measurement Model 2 151

4.10 CMI Measurement Model 1 153

4.13 Overall fit model 1 157

4.16 Visual diagram of path Analysis 163

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

CDI Career Development Inventory

CDK Career Development Knowledge

CDMSE Career Decision Self-Efficacy

CE Career Exploration

CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

CMI Career Maturity Inventory

conventional (usually expressed by the acronym

CP Career Planning

CRPSS Career-Related Support Scale

CSCS Children`s Self Concept Scale

DV Dependent Variable

EFA Education for All

EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis

GOF Goodness of Fit

IV Independent Variable

KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

LLL Life-Long Learning

ML Maximum Likelihood

MRA Multiple Regression Analysis

MRDC Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation

NEP North Eastern Province

NFD Northern Frontier Districts

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PCA Confirmatory Factor Analysis

PI Parental Involvement

RIASEC Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and SCCT Social Cognitive Career Theory

SDS Self-Directed Search

SEL Social and Emotional Learning

SEM Structural Educational Modelling

SES Social Economic Status

VB verbal encouragement (VB)

VPI Vocational Preference Inventory

WI Workplace Information

WW Knowledge about World of Work

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents to the readers quick and brief information of the present research study. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce very important components and building blocks of the study. It will acquaint the reader with the fundamental aspects of the study such as the background of the study, problem statement, research questions, objectives, scope and limitations, significance of the study and definitions of terms.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The dynamics of the workplace and expectations of employers are constantly changing.

To date, there is a constant global change that is witnessed in the world of work (Hassan

& Habib, 2009). Consequently, characteristics of labour forces keep on changing and adjusting to new demands of the workplace is order of the day. To address the volatility of the global economy and world of work, employees are expected to acquire new skills in order to meet the requirements of employers due to the emergence of new technology in the workplace. The transition from school to post-secondary education or to join world-of-work is a concern to youths of today. The future prospect of getting employment and marketability for youths in this century is at great stakes. Many countries in Europe are aspiring to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based society in the world (Sultana, 2003). Submit of European Union in Lisbon 2000 acknowledged that lifelong learning (LLL) fostered by proper guidance services is a key way through which life-long-learning can be attained. For people to

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embrace the goal of life-long-learning, guidance should, therefore, accompany people throughout life. Guidance services in this context are turning out to be a key component in the national agenda in the EU nations because it is the tool through which the policy of life-long-learning in European countries is implemented. Life-long-learning, however, will definitely lead to a knowledge-based society and consequently knowledge-driven economy. Guidance services is a priority action area in European members state and it is reported that “both the Council (Education, Youth & Culture) Resolution and the Copenhagen Declaration of 2002 call for strengthening policies, systems, and practices that support information, guidance and counselling in the member states” (Sultana, 2003, p. 9). Further, a report on investing efficiently in Education (2003) contends that guidance services play crucial roles that include improving matching and retention throughout the education and training sector.

Education and training policies of these nations acknowledge that guidance service is a provision to individual and should be embraced and put in public policies. Moreover, in EU countries guidance services is utilized to assist in the Union’s goal of increasing labour force participation and addressing career progression after retirement. This was achieved through promoting active ageing and creating a supportive environment in an effort to integrate the retired, unemployed and old citizens into the workforce. At some point, guidance services act as ‘job broker’ on behalf of the jobseekers (Sultana, 2003).

Guidance in European nations also plays a linkage role through which clientele connect with local, regional and national to locate European educational and occupational opportunities. On the other hand, guidance in Africa and other parts of the world has not seen much light and therefore should rise to the challenge of re-assuming its role in order to initiate Knowledge Society that will embrace Life-Long-Learning.

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Competitiveness in the global market employers particularly big organizations and multinational companies are on a constant search for competent employees who are multi-skilled, multitasking and are flexible to adapt to change. Employees who are highly innovative, poses positive attitude, have broad knowledge and are very committed to work (Lee & Hughey, 2000). Furthermore, large corporations and international companies require their prospective employees to pass through skill qualification tests. The consequence of this is that individuals with no post-secondary education or proper skills training will probably face fewer economic and employment opportunities (Rashid & Bakar, 2010.).

Career counselling in schools and career intervention programs should provide essential support to students for a proper transition to post-secondary education or workplace. In that respect, school counsellors are, therefore, tasked with the responsibility to impart not only career decision-making skills but also to furnish students with marketability and employability strategies. In the provision of guidance services imparting information about changes in the market while choosing courses is vital during elementary and high schools. For instance, personnel in counselling departments in schools should have up-to-date information about the fluctuation in the market economy, job opportunities, job growth and job security. Due to these dramatic changes in the market economy and rapid and wobbling market career-counselling experts offering services of career counselling should emphasize on assisting students to transit from secondary to post-secondary alternative (Feller, 2003). According to developmental approach, career development is a dynamic process that involves ongoing decision-making in the entire life process. Burnett (2003, p. 47) asserts that

“the recursive interaction of aspects of the life cycle and changing demands of life roles continue to influence career development.”

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The provision of vocational guidance and counselling services with the purpose of making people to identify suitable careers is dated back to the fifteenth century (Brown, 2002). Frank Parsons (1909) is considered the father of vocational and career guidance (Brown, 2002; Kidd, 2006; Yat Hung, 2007; Hughes & Karp, 2004). Frank Parsons established the first vocational guidance agency in 1908 in Boston-United States (Kidd, 2006). Brown (2002) asserts, “Parsons (1909: 4) believed that if people actively engage in choosing their preferred occupation rather than allowing coincidence to operate in the hunt for a job, they are more satisfied with their careers, employers’

costs decrease and employees’ efficiency increases.” Vocational guidance as it was termed during early times is considered to have been first practiced in America.

However, guidance services offered during this early time was vocational in nature (Hughes & Karp, 2004) and the emphasis, therefore, was majorly on how to place people properly in industries and work-place. At its onset, the provision of vocational guidance focused on activities such as increasing people`s knowledge about the workplace – requirements, conditions, advantages, disadvantages, compensations, opportunities, benefits etc. In this respect, during the 1890s to early 1900s, vocational guidance services concentrated heavily in urban and industrial society for placement purposes (Pope, 2000). By then, services and provisions of career counselling, strictly termed as

“vocational guidance” were common practice in the United States of America.

After the elapse of major events such as the great depression of the thirties and World War I and II, vocational guidance evolved and begun to classify people in meaningful ways of placing people in occupations they suit and which they can satisfactorily perform. For instance, after World War I use of psychometric tests to measure and quantify facets like intellect, interest and aptitudes of clients began in the practice of vocational guidance services. Moreover, after the 1920s, vocational guidance

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programmes have seen a dramatic shift in its focus where educational guidance in both elementary and secondary school took centre stage. It is also worth noting that change of activities and usage of new instruments in vocational guidance increased.

Consequently, new terminologies began to appear in this discipline. For example, terminologies such ‘vocational guidance’ was substituted with new terms ‘career counselling’ and later on ‘career development’ were introduced to replace the original and conventional terms. A good example, the popular

Secondary school education is a vital stage in the continuum of human growth and developmental (Super, 1990). This period of education is where the foundation is put and prepare students to think about future career they will pursue in post high school education and trainings either in universities or colleges. It is during this stage of education essential constructs related to career development are developed.

Coincidently, the secondary education period, in particular, corresponds to the maturational stage of growth, exploration and development of adolescence. Therefore, with regard to personality development, during this period - high school, students undergo vital developmental changes. It is believed that it is during this stage students engage in academic related decisions while choosing major in senior high school. At this time, students start to ponder on choosing a future career and type of work that they admire and believe suits their interest, aptitude and abilities. In developed countries, during this time students are exposed to different careers and work place scenarios, which establish the foundation for their future occupational choice. Such programmes includes the famous school to work programme practiced in America (Kelly, 2009).

Career guidance for senior secondary students involves assisting students to plan for education and future work (Osoro, Normane & Borgen, 2000). To prepare students to attain career maturity, important activities related to career development such as

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career exploration, career planning, career decision-making and attaining career maturity should be implemented in schools. In addition, because of biological disposition and growth that is at a high pace which is adolescence stage career exploration should be enhanced and increased (Alvarez, 2008; Super, 1961; Yat Hung, 2007). According to Yat Hung (2007) career exploration is significantly enhanced by the desire to develop and increase one`s career decision-making capacity. Consequently, initiating strategies and interventions to provide relevant support to enhance career exploration skills and enhance career maturity becomes a major requirement in secondary schools. This indeed will inculcate students with the ability to prepare for world of work and search jobs in the near future.

The significance of establishing a proper provision of vocational guidance services in secondary school is evident in the British education program. Kidd (2006, p.

4) contends “in England, all secondary school students (aged between 11 to 18) and most further education students (aged 16 upwards) have access to Connexions - formal career services, which is funded by the Department for Education and Skills.” In the United Kingdom the provision of career services in Scotland and Wales have taken a further step and introduced all-age career services. Kidd (2006) further proclaims the provision for students under Connexions programme include allocating young person a

‘personal advisor’ to provide professional guidance on both personal, academic and career related issues among others.

Making a successful transition from secondary school either to join the world of work or to pursue further education is a major concern for adolescents everywhere at the eve of finishing secondary school. However, in developed countries such as the United States of America, this uncertainty has been reduced significantly if not eliminated by putting in place effective career support services in all learning

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institutions. Conversely, the situation might not be promising for adolescents in underdeveloped countries where career guidance service is not well established. The condition might be gloom in remote and rural areas in under-developed nations where career services are very scarce to non-existing. Career development of youths who are in rural areas, in the case of our present study, where opportunities and resources are very limited the services of career counselling and career guidance is not a common practice. In general, the Counties located in Northern part of Kenya famously known in pre-independence as ‘Northern Frontier Districts- NFD’ have continued to exhibited low access to education, poor participation and unpromising achievement rate (Ruto et al., 2009).

1.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF WAJIR COUNTY: GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, DEMOGRAPHIC AND EDUCATION

Wajir County also known as Wajir district before the recent devolution system is located in Northern part of Kenya. Wajir County is approximately 56,685.8 square kilometers (Mohamud, 2013), and has a population estimate of roughly 661, 941 people. This County borders with other counties in the region like Garissa, Mandera, Isiolo, and Marsabit. Geographically, the County has several border points including with the Republic of Somalia to the East and Ethiopia to the North West. Three Counties, namely: Wajir, Garissa and Madera constituted what was named North Eastern Province (NEP) in the post-colonial map of Kenya.

The topography of the entire northern region is classified as Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL). ASAL region is further classified into two categories: A and B.

Category A is characterized to receive an annual rainfall of between 200-550 mm.

Examples of type A are Wajir, Garissa and Mandera Counties. Therefore, the climate

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condition of Wajir County is harsh with a mean annual temperature of 28°C and rainfall ranging between 250mm and 700mm per annum in some parts of the county. Most part of the year the entire region (Northern districts) experience dryness with sporadic rainfall in some parts. Because of the poor climatic condition that cannot sustain arable farming coupled with marginalization and prolonged under developmental this entire region has for long solely depended on nomadic pastoralism (livestock rearing) as prime economic activity. The ASAL region produces 50-70% of livestock in Kenya. However, dependency on livestock economy is extremely fragile because of the climatic changes and global warming that causes severe and pinching droughts. Moreover, lack of enough support from previous government towards livestock economy has perpetuated loss of large livestock during droughts (Ruto, et al., 2009). Investment in livestock economy is vulnerable to risks of droughts and cattle rustling. In an attempt to address nomads from the effect of pinching droughts the government, local and international NGOs such us OXFAM usually offer emergency relief food and carry out some sort of water tracking during drought seasons. However, this would not sustain as it cannot fully tackle survival of livestock.

Report prepared for United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010) suggests that ASAL area in Kenya is less densely populated constituting only 20% of the entire Kenyan population. This translates to about 8.75 million people out of a population of approximately 50 million. Even though the population seems meager compared to the population of interior Kenya, however, the mean age of population of these counties is 20.2 years and the other counties in the entire northern region (Wajir, Mandera, and Garissa). The population parameter, in this respect, is promising because the larger portions of persons in this region are youths. This report further affirms the population

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in NEP is most fertile in Kenya with a total fertility rate of 7.2% (against a national average of 5.0%). This statistic confirms that larger part of the population in Wajir County and other neighbouring counties is comprised of young people. In other words, a significant portion of this population are school-going children particularly are primary and secondary school students. The darker side of the picture, however, according to another report prepared by Commission of Revenue Allocation (CRA, 2012) is from the overall population of 661,941 people in Wajir County, particularly among adults only 64.4% had attained primary education and only 9% had attained post-secondary education. The rest of the population never had any formal education.

The infrastructural development of this region was is in horrific condition. For instance, the trunk roads that connects Wajir County to other Counties is not fully tarmacked except some kilometers from Garissa. The larger part of the road that connects Mandera-Wajir-Garissa is sandy and gravel which makes transportation in this region a nightmare. The road network is in a sorry state with gravel surface of 63 Kilometers and Earth surface of 1,818.2 Kilometers. Since colonial times, access to Northern Kenya has been very hard and difficult and this deprived many opportunities including causing poor education.

Historically, ruling regimes in pre-and-post independent Kenya is infamous for selective development and unequal distribution of resources. School enrollment in ASAL areas has been relatively low compared to the national average. For example, a survey done in 2010 indicates that only 32.3% in NEP (Wajir, Garissa and Madera counties) have ever enrolled in school against a national average of 76.8%. The statistics indicate gradual decline for those who enroll for further education in colleges and universities. Only 0.6% of the population from the Northern region pursue post- secondary education. It is assumed that poor educational infrastructure in this region is

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attributed to colonial policies in pre-independent Kenya. Colonial settlers focused on infrastructure and educational development in interior Kenya. Because colonial rulers created the modern state of Kenya, the areas of political and economic importance were carved and demarcated by European settlers. European settlers were pursuing economic interest hence they established large plantation around the fertile and most densely populated areas particularly in the highlands of Kenya, the central and the Mount Kenya region. Apparently, the introduction of education in these regions was earlier than other parts of the country.

In order to get labour for the plantations and evangelize African societies, the missionaries had to train the workforce to oversee their plantation and do clerical jobs.

In this respect, missionaries erected well-established schools and vocational training centres in central Kenya. Missionaries were unable to adventure into the far north, perhaps, because of the far distance, harsh climate, hostility from the inhabitants and poor infrastructure. Moreover, by then majority of the inhabitants of the Northern Frontier Districts (NFD) were pastoralists and are not therefore settled at one place to offer education. It was difficult to provide educations to nomadic people who are on the move compared to urban and agricultural stable societies. On the other hand, because this region (NFD) has already embraced Islam long ago, formal education has been shunned by the locals due to its association with missionaries and eventual Christianization. Comparatively, until recently regions in Central Kenya have exhibited better education results in national examinations than the rest of Kenya.

1.4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN KENYA

One of the core aim of education is to assist an individual know more about himself/herself in order to choose and pursue a suitable career (Kaur, 2012). The

Kulliyyah of

CAREER MATURITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM LOW-INCOME ENVIRONMENT: