AHMAD DANIAL ARIFF BIN ISHAK A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours

Tekspenuh

(1)by. AHMAD DANIAL ARIFF BIN ISHAK A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours. FACULTY OF EARTH SCIENCE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN. 2020. I. FYP FSB. GEOLOGY OF DABONG AND ROCK COATING AS A RECORD OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES.

(2) “I/ We hereby declare that that I/ we have read this thesis and in my/ our opinion this thesis is sufficient and approve to fulfill the scopes and quality for the award of Bachelor of Applied Science (Geoscience) with Honours.”. Title. : Geology Of Dabong And Occurrences Of Rock Coating As A Record Of Environment Changes. Signature. :. Name of Supervisor :. Date. :. i. FYP FSB. APPROVAL.

(3) I declare that this thesis entitled “GEOLOGY OF DABONG AND ROCK COATING AS A RECORD OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES” is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.. Signature. : _____________________________________. Name. : AHMAD DANIAL ARIFF BIN ISHAK. Date. : _____________________________________. ii. FYP FSB. DECLARATION.

(4) Upon completion of this thesis, I praise and thankful to Allah for his blessing and gratitude in giving me strength in completing my thesis. It had been a rough journey with a troublesome year with the pandemic and the unable for geological mapping to collects geological data, it had been quite challenges for our batch yet, due to His Almighty, we made it to finish our research. I would also like to say my gratitude to the one who had supports me throughout my final year journey, Muhammad Afiq Bin Abdul Kahar. He had help a lot in terms of giving moral supports and also help me in completing this journey, without him who know whether this research is publish or not. Not to forget my fellow batchmates, who been giving supportive advices and mentorship. Next appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr. Roniza Binti Ismail for giving me guidance in finishing this thesis, she also gives supports and mentorships in making sure we come out with a reliable and handful thesis. Also, I would like to thanks our coordinator final year project, Dr Noorzamzarina Binti Sulaiman, and our examiners. Moreover, my appreciation towards my parents as the support system for me in completing this research. Lastly, a token of gratitude to all who have been involved in my journey. It had been quite an experience. Thank you.. Ahmad Danial Ariff Bin Ishak, 2021. iii. FYP FSB. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

(5) ABSTRACT. Forming of ambiguous layer on a rock that was found in an area. The layer has a distinctive mineral compare with the layer inside the rock. This rock layer that coats the inner rock is called as rock coating. This phenomenon is undergoing worldwide in all over the regimes. It happens in tropical, subtropical, Mediteranean environment and even in desert. Each of this environment give different types of coating because it depends on the behavioral of the mineral upon a region. In Malaysia, rock coating is less to be venture among the geologists even though rock coating can record the past paleo environment of an area. In this thesis, a study on the rock coating occurring in Tanah Merah and Jeli as a representative sample area of Kelantan to be analyse and do comparison to differentiate each types of coating as a rock layer on the sample. The scopes of the sample are based on the rock that contains data on its composite elements from the information on the X-Ray Flourescence (XRF) analysis done by previous researches. This method helps to identified the composition and percentage of the mineral on a specific sample. From these data, review of these types of coating is done to know each attribute characteristics shown by different coating in term of colour, mineral composition, physical properties and weathering rates. Lastly, the main findings of these data where state and elaborate in the discussion to helps in recognize types of coating better.. iv. FYP FSB. General Geology of Dabong and Rock Coating as a Record of Environmental Changes..

(6) ABSTRAK. Pembentukan lapisan samar-samar di atas batu yang ditemui di kawasan. Setiap lapisan luaran batuan mempunyai mineral tersendiri berbanding dengan lapisan di dalam batu. Lapisan batu ini yang kot batu dalaman dipanggil sebagai lapisan batu (rock coating). Fenomena ini berlaku di seluruh dunia dalam seluruh rejim. Ia berlaku dalam persekitaran tropika, subtropika, Mediteranean dan juga di padang pasir. Setiap persekitaran ini memberikan pelbagai jenis ‘coating’ kerana ia mempengarui pada tingkah laku mineral di batuan yang ditempel. Di Malaysia, ‘rock coating’ kurang dititikberatkan dikalangan ahli geologi Malaysia kerana dianggap sebagai satu ciri kecil namun ‘rock coating’ boleh merakamkan persekitaran paleo masa lalu seseorang kawasan. Dalam tesis ini, kajian mengenai lapisan batuan yang berlaku di Tanah Merah dan Jeli sebagai kawasan sampel perwakilan di Kelantan untuk dianalisis dan dilakukan perbandingan untuk membezakan setiap jenis ‘coating’ sebagai lapisan batu pada sampel. Ruang lingkup sampel didasarkan pada batuan yang mempunyai data elemen komposit mineral yang diperolehi dari analisis X-Ray Flourescence (XRF) yang dilakukan oleh penyelidik-penyelidik sebelumnya. Kaedah ini membantu mengenal pasti komposisi dan peratusan mineral pada sampel tertentu. Dari data ini, tinjauan jenis ‘coating’ ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui setiap ciri atribut yang ditunjukkan oleh lapisan yang berbeza dari segi warna, komposisi mineral, sifat fizikal dan kadar luluhawa. Akhir sekali, penemuan utama data ini dinyatakan dan dijelaskan dalam perbincangan untuk membantu mengenali jenis ‘coating’ dengan lebih baik.. v. FYP FSB. Geologi Umum Dabong dan Rock Coating sebagai Rekod Perubahan Alam Sekitar..

(7) APPROVAL .................................................................................................................. i DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of Study .......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Study Area .......................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Problem Statement .............................................................................................. 4 1.4 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Scope of Study .................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Significant of Study ............................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................ 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 9 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 9 2.2 Regional Geology and Tectonic Settings .......................................................... 10 2.3 Stratigraphy ...................................................................................................... 11 2.4 Structural Geology............................................................................................ 12 2.5 Types of Coating and Different Morphology Affecting the Coating ................ 13 CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................................. 28 MATERIALS AND METHOD .................................................................................. 28 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 28 3.2 Materials and Apparatus ................................................................................... 29 3.2.1 Basic Materials ........................................................................................... 29 3.2.2 Specific Instrument and Software .............................................................. 30 3.3 Methodology..................................................................................................... 30 3.3.1 Preliminary Studies .................................................................................... 30 3.3.2 Data Collection (primary and secondary data)........................................... 31 3.3.3 Field Observation and Interpretation ......................................................... 32 3.3.4 Geologic Map and Data Specification ....................................................... 33 3.3.5 Data Compilation and Comparison ............................................................ 33 CHAPTER 4 .............................................................................................................. 34 GENERAL GEOLOGY ............................................................................................. 34 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 34 vi. FYP FSB. Table of Contents.

(8) 4.1.2 Settlement................................................................................................... 37 4.1.4 Landuse (Forestry or Vegetation) ............................................................... 41 4.2 Geomorphology ................................................................................................ 42 4.2.1 Topography of study area. .......................................................................... 42 4.2.2 Geomorphologic classification (with geomorphologic unit map) ............. 44 4.2.3 Drainage pattern ......................................................................................... 45 4.3 Lithostratigraphy .............................................................................................. 47 4.3.1 Stratigraphic position (of all units) ............................................................ 49 4.3.2 Unit explanation ......................................................................................... 49 4.4 Structural Geology............................................................................................ 51 4.4.1 Fault ........................................................................................................... 51 4.4.2 Fold ............................................................................................................ 52 4.5 Historical Geology............................................................................................ 52 CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................................. 54 ROCK COATING AS A RECORD OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES .............. 54 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 54 5.1.1 Localities of Rock Coating Samples .......................................................... 55 5.2 Results and Interpretation ................................................................................. 61 5.2.1 Interpretation of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis............................... 61 5.2.2 Rock Coating Properties and Environment Changes ................................. 77 CHAPTER 6 .............................................................................................................. 83 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 83 6.1 Final Remarks ................................................................................................... 83 6.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................ 85 REFERENCES........................................................................................................... 87. vii. FYP FSB. 4.1.1 Accessibility (in the study area) ................................................................. 35.

(9) No.. TITLE. PAGE. 3.1. Basic material for project research. 29. 4.1. Settlements classification. 38. 4.2. Urban settlements classification. 39. 4.3. Stratigraphiy column. 52. 5.1. Oxides compound composition. 60. 5.2. Analysis of oxides compound. 70-71. viii. FYP FSB. LIST OF TABLES.

(10) No.. TITLE. PAGE. 1.1. Geological map of study area. 3. 2.1. Geology and formation of in Kelantan. 12. 2.2. Physical barrier: Van Der Walls forces. 16. 2.3. Biological barrier: Fixation of Mn and Fe. 16. 2.4. Physiochemical barrier: Cementation of clay. 17. 2.5. Carbonate crust coating. 18. 2.6. Case hardening coating. 19. 2.7. Dust films coating. 20. 2.8. Heavy metal skin coating. 21. 2.9. Iron dust coating. 22. 2.10 Lithobiants coating. 23. 2.11 Oxalate crust coating. 24. 2.12 Rock varnish coating. 25. 2.13 Salt crust coating. 26. 2.14 Silica glaze. 26. 2.15 Sulphate crust coating. 27. 4.1. Accessibility map of study area. 36. 4.2. Railways station in Dabong. 37. 4.3. Pattern of settlements. 40. 4.4. Landuse map of study area. 42. 4.5. Topography of map of study area. 43. 4.6. 3-D model of study area. 45. 4.7. Drainage pattern in study area. 46. 4.8. Lithology map of study area. 48 ix. FYP FSB. LIST OF FIGURES.

(11) Andesite outcrop. 50. 4.10 Specimen of andesite. 50. 4.11 Lineament map of study area. 51. 4.12 Rose diagram of study area. 52. 5.1. Study area in the research. 55. 5.2. Distribution of trace elements. 62. x. FYP FSB. 4.9.

(12) INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Background of Study This study is about the general geology of Dabong and occurrences of rock coating as a record of environment changes in Dabong, Kuala Krai, Kelantan. For the geology part, the study focusing on the geomorphology, structure and stratigraphy of the rock. Sampling and record of data is required to produce a complete geological map of the area, however, because of COVID-19 pandemic all data gathered are secondary source data gathered from the internet, past researchers and related geology agency. Rock coating is another forming-layer that has a distinctive character from the parent bedrock act as a new coating to the coated rock. It becomes as the outer layer of underlying bedrock, giving different chemical properties and colour to the initial bedrock. The forming of the coating on the rock depends on the geomorphology of the area from past environments hence, from these phenomena scientists and geologists used rock coating as a record of the past paleo-climate of the area to predict the past 1. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 1.

(13) Moreover, for specification of the research in terms of rock coating data. The data that have been collected as a secondary data from past research is coming from two localitities which is from Tanah Merah and Jeli. This extracted data was the analysis from an X-Ray Fluorescence and the observation point of rock sample in the study area with the lithologies pictures on field. These method helps to analyse and identify the type of mineral in the rock sample and also to determine the type of coating occur on the rock. However, these data alone cannot determine the coating of the rock yet, but soil sample data is also used to tell whether the element is a coating. From these secondary data, comparison for the occurrences of rock coating between Malaysia and other's country can be done. The parameter for this comparison is based on the types of coating itself.. 1.2 Study Area The study area is located in Dabong, Kuala Krai, Kelantan which a case study of 1:25000 scale at the coordinate of N 5° 19' 30’’ to N 5° 17’ 0’’ and to E 102° 0’ 30’’ to E 102° 3’ 30’’. Kuala Krai, Kelantan is one of the 10 districts in Kelantan, Malaysia.. 2. FYP FSB. environment..

(14) FYP FSB Figure 1.1: The complete geological map of the study area.. Based on the satellite image of the study area it is confirmed that the placed is consider being a rural area as it is far from human settlement and non-infrastructure can be identified near the study area, this outcome is from the visibility of the area 3.

(15) largest after Gua Musang however it has a high density of population among in the Kelantan. They are major district in Kuala Krai which is Olak Jeram, Baru Mengkebang and Dabong. For land use it is highly focused on plantation and vegetation such as palm oil, banana, coconut trees and so on because of its people cultivating plantations among them. For road connection, Kuala Krai is expanding rapidly after the Kuala Krai-Gua Musang highway, which is opened in August 1983 making route to Kuala Lumpur from Kota Bharu. The two main rivers are the Galas River and the Lebir River met on the Kelantan River in Kuala Krai town. There is also a railway station that connects Tumpat to Gua Musang. Hence, Kuala Krai is a district that is accessible and good in road connection.. 1.3 Problem Statement Understanding environments can help identify the recent, past and future issues on how current ecosystem stands. Aside from that, natural physical activity of weathering normally will change the rock surface and contribute to the formation of rock coatings. Thus, by reviewing the rock coatings studies that have been done in specific area in Kelantan, we can understand the properties and the process that contribute to the rock coating formation. This is important to help us predict and understanding the environmental process that happened in the surrounding/environments. The climate in Malaysia only has dry and wet seasons,. 4. FYP FSB. based on the point using the satellite imagery (SRTM). This district is the second.

(16) comparing the data from the previous research about rock coating.. 1.4 Objectives The research of geology and occurrences of rock coating as a record of environment changes was carried out in Dabong to achieve: 1) To update a geological map of Dabong with more specification on the type of rock, geomorphology, stratigraphy and the structure present in scale of 1:25000 area based on map interpretation and analysis on base map from satellite imagery. 2) To review and identify the occurrences of rock coating in Jeli and Tanah Merah as part of coating in Kelantan and comparison with rock coating that is occuring in other region such as South Asia, Australia, Africa and more based on the types of coating as the parameter.. 1.5 Scope of Study Generally, this research is focussing on the aspect of geology including the lithology,. geomorphology,. structural. geology,. mineralogy. and. petrology,. sedimentology and depositional environment to produce a complete geological map of the study area. 5. FYP FSB. thus understanding the properties and factor in rock coating can be done easily by.

(17) pandemic it is not allowed for students to do mapping and collecting data hence, in term of getting new data on rock coating in the study area is quite impossible, making sure that this research follows on it have been decided that the data from past research in Kampung Kalai, Jeli and Kampung Batu Gajah Kelantan will be a representative for the occurrences of rock coating in Kelantan and also as representative for the data in this study area due to limited access and time. In term of rock coating specification, it is important for the observation and identification of coating adhere on the rock sample in the study area. Based on Dorn, 2013 there are 14 types of rock coating that have been identified where each one has different attributes depending on the mineral composition adhere on the layer of the rock. The occurrences of rock coating were interpreted by researchers as a cause due to chemical, biological and physical barriers to the transport of these elements that responsible in undergoing accretion process then interlocking each other or blends together depending on the behaviours of the constituent element, after that these processes will form a various coating that altered the appearance of the underlying landform in the area. Hence from this approach the environment of the study area can be determine based on the occurrences of rock coating in an area. Also, the specification also involved comparison between the types of rock coating occurring in Malaysia and others region such as South Asia, Africa, Australia and many more. This is due to the tendency of coating to occur in an arid environment are more diverse and complex compare to the humid climate of wet and dry in 6. FYP FSB. Unfortunately, due to the Movement Control Order (MCO) in this current.

(18) would affect the soil salinity in an area that changing the types of coating on the rock surfaces. The parameter used to observe this comparison is based on the types of rock coating itself. Lastly, outcome of this comparison can help us as geologists among Malaysian specifically to understand the occurrences of rock coating more details.. 1.6 Significant of Study The geological studies in Dabong can help in providing information on mineral composition through petrographic studies and also determine the element composition in the rock through geochemical analysis, such as XRF and SEM analysis. From the distribution of the element in the rock, the coating adhere on the rock layer of can be identified and be the evident of such environment in the study area. Since ancient times, coating on rocks are the earliest phenomenon studied by humans, for example prehistoric artists used rock coatings as blackboard for engraving motifs, the past cultures had used rock coatings as a major stonework, moreover the architecture and sculpture on older historic buildings is also affected by rock coating. These are some example of rock coatings that happened in our daily life until current day. Aside from that, rock coating also has significant effects in geomorphology. Rock coatings influence landforms in a variety of ways. A study by Conca and Rossman (1982) found out that through case hardening it helps stabilise the landform, it is 7. FYP FSB. Malaysia. Thus, this proves how significantly past climate such as rainfall precipitation.

(19) materials inside pore spaces in the weathering rind. Study also shows that chemical weathering rate is also reduced when a rock is coated with other mineral at the surface of the weathering rinds (Meunier et al., 2017). While the coating of dust film and precipitation of calcrete crust promoting the process of physical weathering on the rock via contraction and expansion inside the rock fissure. Lastly, the exposure age of the rock can be determined by rock varnish that happened at landforms such as glacial moraine, alluvial-fan deposit, stream terrace and landslide. In short, the significant of rock coating in geomorphology is various, it can alter the appearance of bedrock landform different from the underlying bedrock. A revolutionary research by Tanzhou Liu (2008), two decades of analysis of over 10000 micro sedimentary basins simplify how rock coatings can analyse paleoclimate changes and also provide minimum ages to understand landform evolution. Lastly, the most important part of this study is to create awareness among the students and researchers on rock coating as it plays a major role in transforming the landforms on an area and how it can study on past environments. This is crucial, as the study on rock coating is still few among the Malaysians itself compared to other researchers in the foreign country.. 8. FYP FSB. derived commonly from the mobilisation and re-precipitation of rock-coating.

(20) LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1 Introduction This chapter review about several rock coatings around the world. The geology of this area is described and explained in term of its location and process mainly. Also, for specification of this research which is rock coating as a past record of environment changes is also elaborated here. The previous studies and research give a lot of information that well describe the geology of the area and what is rock coating.. 9. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 2.

(21) Malaysia is located on the Sunda tectonic plate, which is between two major boundaries of Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate in the west of Peninsular Malaysia, and the Philippine Sea Plate and Eurasian Plate at Bornean (Sabah and Sarawak) Malaysia. The total land area in Malaysia is 329,847 square kilometres and its oldest rock ranging from 540 million years ago and is mostly sediments. Due to the proximity distance from the Ring of Fire, only Sabah is at risk of moderate earthquake. Focussing on the Peninsular Malaysia, it can be divided into 3 longitudinal belts which are Western, Central and Eastern belts where each one has its own distinctive characteristics and geological features. In term of mineralization, Scrivenor (1928) proposed that a division of the Central gold belt in between the tin belts to the east and west, then these belts now developed into what we called today as Central, Eastern and Western belts respectively. Detailing on the location of Kelantan, which is in the Central belt, at the north eastern of Peninsular Malaysia. In Kelantan, mineralization of gold is richly distributed in the state where it was bounded by the Stong Igneous Complex and Senting Granite on the west, Kemahang Granite in the north and Boundary Range Granite in the east. For regional geology of Kelantan, in the central zone there are many windows of granite intrusion, the most prominent is the batholith of Ulu Lalat (Senting Granite), the Stong Igneous Complex and the Kemahang pluton which extend to the north of Pahang. The belts in the central and west continue northward into the south of Thailand while the east belt, the Boundary Range Granite, is overlain by the coastal alluvial flat of Sungai Kelantan. 10. FYP FSB. 2.2 Regional Geology and Tectonic Settings.

(22) For stratigraphy of Kelantan, the area is made of different types of rock with different ages and unique formations. The oldest rocks are of lower Paleozoic age at the north belt bordering the foothills of the Main Range granite and extending to Sungai Nenggiri (MacDonald, 1967). At the east is a volcanic-sedimentary rock that is predominant of Permian age and overly unconformably to the Lower Paleozoic sequence in southwest Kelantan. At central north Kelantan is dominant with pretriassic Taku Schist. While triassic rock which is argillo-arenaceous sediments that is intercalated with volcanic and limestone which confined from the central to south Kelantan. The youngest rock at Kelantan is Jurassic-Cretaceous rock, which overlay the Boundary Range Granite and Triassic sediments in Gunung Gagau area, which is the boundary of Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang. At the west which is Gunung Perlis and Gunung Pemumpu is conglomerate rocks overlay by sandstones.. 11. FYP FSB. 2.3 Stratigraphy.

(23) FYP FSB Figure 2. 1: The geology and formation in Kelantan that is divided into four main formation (Source: Lee, 2004). 2.4 Structural Geology For structural geology in Dabong there are many structural analyses have been done there and the results shows that there has been a major deformation at the study area. The study area is major with slate, sandstone, limestone and andesite ranging between Paleozoic to Mesozoic era, and also found the karst features such as sinkholes, stalactites and stalagmites. The highlight of Dabong is the formation of Stong Igneous Complex which comprises three lithodemic unit which are Berangkat Tonalite, Noring. 12.

(24) implying that the source rock is of mafic to intermediate igneous composition. Thus, Umor et al. (2016) suggested that the Stong Complex is characterized by crustal melting and pervasive migmatisation, which is high in K and peraluminious geochemistry.. 2.5 Types of Coating and Different Morphology Affecting the Coating Rock coating can occur at a rock in overlying landform under certain condition and depends on the geomorphology of the landform. In Developments in Earth Surface Process (1998), rock coating in semiarid, arid or hyper arid climates covers over 3 percent of the Earth surfaces. As example, coating can occur at the weathering rinds of a rock making a coated mineral that protected the rock from chemical weathering based on research by Meunier et al. (2017), this coating is known as case hardening. In term of rock coating to occur, they are five-order control that are needed to present for coating to occur, which are: 1. First-order Control: Geomorphic Stability The bare rock surfaces must presence and are exposed with glaciation, weathering, landslide, which is the geomorphic processes that are exposed with the atmosphere. This is due to the need of a rock coating to undergoes subaerial exposure such as at the deserts and alpine environments. Suzuki (2020), stated that rock coating is crucial related with the concept of rock control in geomorphology. 13. FYP FSB. Granite and Kenerong Leucogranite. All the rock can be classified as I type granite,.

(25) such as flooding, faulting, volcanic, periglacial, and mass wasting. According to Gillbert (1877), most common base exposures on rock is in arid area due to its desert and limited landscapes. 2. Second-order Control: Subaerial Exposure of Subsurface Coatings Rock coating that already occurs in the subsurface but are expose due to erosion. As an example, based on the research by (Haberland, 1975; Hayden, 1976) an iron film was found on the clasts in the soil layer then, in 2004, research by Hunt and Wu discover that the soil is exposed at the surface due to erosion. These coating occur because the transport pathways carry different constituent elements and are fixed into the fissure of the soil or rock fragment in the soil. 3. Third-order Control: Competition from Lithobiants Lithobiants are organisms that live on the surface, occupy fissures in rock or live within the pore spaces of the weathering rinds (Golubic et al., 1981), lichens, fungi and algae are considered as these lithobiontic organisms. Lihthobiontic coating also known as biofilms because it is a thin range within 1-5 millimeter known as biorinds, while the layer greater than 5 mm are known as biocrusts (Viles, 1995; Gorbushina, 2007). Competition in this context is referring to the growth rate of the lithobiontic organisms that is faster compared to most of the inorganic coatings such as iron films, silica glaze and rock varnish (Friedmann and Galun, 1974; et. all). This order is applied when a fast-growing lithobiants dominate the rock surfaces compare to the inorganic coating, these will cause changes in the biogeochemistry of the rock surfaces. One statement from Paradise, 1997; Lee and 14. FYP FSB. There are many conditions for the rock to undergoes into subaerial environment.

(26) weathering rate and erosion of the rock. These organisms grow on the surfaces and in the pore spaces between the mineral grains, due to the increases in the spacing between the mineral grains, the rock surface is less stable and are more prone to weathering and erosion making rock coating cannot occur. 4. Fourth-order Control: Transport Pathway In order for rock coating to occur, a certain number of elements need to be transported to the accretion sites where these elements accumulate and undergoes enhancement, such as the present of manganese in the rock varnish. The element present usually is ubiquitous, such as iron, clay minerals and silica. The elements transported must be present and they must migrate to the rock surfaces. As an example (Smith et al., 2007) found that a formation of silica glaze on a granitebuilding at Rio de Jeneiro that producing dust deposition, then the silica is moved from the dust to forms as silica glaze. 5. Fifth-order Control: Barriers to Transport This order states there is a barrier to the transport of the constituent’s elements in a rock, the barriers can be divided into three barriers which are physical, biological and chemical barriers. In this research by (Jordan, 1954; Bishop et al., 2002; Ganor et al., 2009) prove a physical barrier which is the electrostatic force that holds the dust particles together. While a geochemical barrier which is a change in Ph/Eh oxidizing and fixing of iron in films by (NIAIST, 2005). Lastly, a biological barrier was showed by the oxidizing of bacteria in the manganese in rock varnish.. 15. FYP FSB. Parsons, 1999, one example of possession that lithobiant do was enhancing the.

(27) (2009) in Geomorphology of Desert Environments: A) Physical barrier. Figure 2. 2: A dust accumulation by a Van der Walls forces giving raw clays (Source: Geomorphology of Desert Environments). B) Biological barrier. Figure 2. 3: The fixation of Manganese and Ferum in bacteria sheets (Source: Geomorphology of Desert Environments). 16. FYP FSB. Below is some example of barriers of transport based on Parsons, & Abrahams.

(28) FYP FSB. C) Physiochemical barrier. Figure 2. 4: The fixation in clay matrix cementing mixed-layered clays (Source: Geomorphology of Desert Environments). According to Dorn (2013), there are 14 different types of rock coating which are: I.. Carbonate skin Carbonate skin or carbonate crust does not consider as rock coating however study. is made conducted on the carbonate deposits. In freshwater carbonate skin can be identified as travertine, sinter and tufa. In different locality which is at karst topography, caves they will frequently found encrust in basaltic lava tubes. While at the marine coast environment, the deposit that can be found is stromatolites and beachwork. Even though carbonate skin is origin from various mineralogy and chemistry but when exposed into the lithosphere it will form as rock coating. This coating contains calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and sometimes magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃).. 17.

(29) FYP FSB. a). b). Figure 2. 5: The carbonate crust found under large boulders at semi-arid and desert soils this image was taken at a) California b) Arizona both were cited based on (Source: Dorn, 2013). II.. Case hardening Case hardening is a type of rock coating where the rock surface is more resistant. to weathering and erosion compare to its inside material. There are two processes that make case hardening, which is core softening in the inner of the rock and case hardening of the exterior of the rock. Sometimes foreign elements are added to the host rock. While in the other case, the rock coating themselves that form earlier acts as the coating to harden the rock. The foreign element that is added as the cementing agent is anthropogenic, organisms, oxalate, iron and silica.. 18.

(30) b). Figure 2. 6: Shows the case of case hardening found in the Petra a) microscope image b) casehardening on old building (Source: Dorn, 2013 in Treatise on Geomorphology).. III.. Dust film Dust is carried and dispersed by the wind to deposit in all environments, they can. accumulate in soils, ice cores, and entire landforms. It is most abundant in arid environments. They grow on geological surfaces and there is the assumption that this element has clay coated with it, hence occurrences of dust films in geological record can indicates false data in aridity. Dust films can be found in an urban building in various climates and also in deserts. Clay mineral is crucial component and acts as adhesion force for the coating of dust films on rock. It is a light powder with clay or silt sized particles that is coated on rock surfaces or in rock fractures.. 19. FYP FSB. a).

(31) FYP FSB Figure 2. 7: Shows the dust films coating occur on rock showing light dusty sized particles on the rock ( Source: Dorn,2013 in Treatise on Geomorphology). IV.. Heavy metal skins This rock coating occurs naturally or by human-altered setting. It is known as. heavy metal skins because it coating comprise heavy metal elements such as iron, zinc, copper, nickel, mercury, leads and many more. The metals that coat the rock occur through anthropogenic activities. The metal could come from various resources such as from petroleum refining, leather processing, iron and steel foundries, organic and inorganic chemicals and many more. Most abundance metal coating is composed of manganese and iron. Occurring in rocks by naturally or human-altered setting. The coating comprising iron, manganese, copper, zinc, nickel, mercury, lead and other heavy mineral. These coating is lack of clay minerals because clays are a vital element in rock varnish.. 20.

(32) FYP FSB Figure 2. 8: Shows a waterflow streak of an outcrop that is streak by heavy metal skin at Sedona, Schnebly Hill Road, Arizona state (Source Dorn, 2013).. V.. Iron film The sign of this coating can be identified from the reddish colouration on rocks on. landforms, iron films coating occurs in various terrestrial settings. In stream settings, iron films are common due to the condition of the acid mine drainage that differs from the subglacial water flows. Composition in this element are iron oxides and oxyhydroxides. Example of the formation of iron films is when a rock is exposed or have fissure, dust and weathered rock fragments will fill the hole, then carbonate will leach from the desert dust and reprecipitated as laminar calcrete skin as shown in figure 4. The iron coating will form when a constant process where dust is filling the fissure which get deeper due to the leaching of the carbonates, forming of iron coating will shows as the orange colour on the rock.. 21.

(33) FYP FSB Figure 2. 9: Shows the iron dust coating on surfaces of a rock due to the continuous process of leaching from the carbonates in the fissure side (Source: Dorn, 2013).. VI.. Lithobiontics coatings Lithobiants coating is considered as an organic coating such as lichens, moss,. fungi, algae and cyanobacteria. They grow on the engraving of rock and filling any fissure that is preferable for its growth. It competes with other inorganic coating in order to coat a rock Coating that was to occur by the organisms such as lichens, moss, fungi, cyanobacteria and algae.. 22.

(34) FYP FSB Figure 2. 10: Shows lithobiants covering the rock surface at different localities: a) Central Arizona covering of light green lichens on welded tuff b) Yunta, South Australia -coating of lithobiants on a joint at a spring c) Kaho’olaww Island, Hawaii -lichens grow inside the engraving of a joint face d) Whoopup Canyon, Worming -lichen grow on the dark-coloured heavy metal coating on a joint of the rock ( Source: Dorn, 2013). VII.. Nitrate crust Commonly occur in caves and rock shelters in limestone areas, the coating is. potassium and calcium nitrate.. VIII.. Oxalate crust Oxalate crust has various in terms of its appearance, its colour ranges from yellow. to orange, reddish- brown, brown, black or whitish. They can be shiny or dull and have smooth to botryoidal textures. The origin of oxalate crusts is related with the metabolic activity of lichens, that why it is commonly found near lichens. Also, it is abundant in terrestrial weathering environments such as the deserts or the Antarctica. The constituent element mostly is silica, calcium oxalate and with a various concentration of manganese, barium, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium and manganese. In term of geological record, oxalate crust can determine past environments by undergoing radiocarbon dating. 23.

(35) Figure 2. 11: Shows the coating of oxalate crust a) image under microscope view b) the place where the oxalate crust coat which is at Stone Mountain, Georgia. (Source:Dorn, 2013). IX.. Phosphate skin A coating that contains various of phosphates mineral such as iron phosphates and. apatite that is sometimes mixed with clays or sometimes manganese.. X.. Pigment Human-manufactured material placed on rock surfaces by people. This type of. coating is not naturally occurred, hence few studied were done and the pigment in random due to the action of human.. XI.. Rock varnish Rock varnish is a dark coating that is assumed as the clay minerals that are. cemented to the rock surfaces. It is a coating that contains clay mineral, manganese, and iron oxides, and minor and trace elements. Its precipitate colours are based on the variable concentrations of manganese and iron oxides, which range from orange to black. It is also stated that rock varnish coating is the by-product of bacterial casts that 24. FYP FSB. b). a).

(36) and goes into the host rock to reprecipitated in the weathering rinds forming case hardening, and the others one is as a product of weathered clay minerals.. a). b). Figure 2. 12: Shows the changes in landscape geochemistry can alter rock coating in optical thin section views a) Shows formation of white calcrete over the grey quartz, then the opening of the fissure causes enough accumulation of weathered fragment and dust, the dust increases the formation of the orange films on top of the calcrete. b) Shows the formation of a black rock varnish this is due to the leaching of the dust away from the rock surfaces when the rock fractured open wider from time to time. (Source: Dorn, 2013).. XII.. Salt crust Salt crust can be identified from the rock surfaces that have chlorite precipitate. forming. An example of the coating is the Mushroom Rock in Death Valley, the salt crust is forming on the weathered surface of the rock. The process involved was the transport of wind from the salt playa to the soil adjacent to the talus boulder. Then, the dissolve salt precipitated near the boulder, by capillary action the salt goes up and precipitate on the surfaces of the boulder as salt crust as shown in figure 8. The salt makes up the crust is identified as barium sulphate, calcium sulphate, sodium chloride and strontium sulphate.. 25. FYP FSB. undergoing weathering, this causes iron and manganese to be removed and leached out.

(37) Figure 2. 13: a) Shows salt crust on Mushroom Rocks in Death Valley, California. b) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of barium sulphate and basalt, the white bright pigments are barite while the darker crystal is weathered basalt silica minerals (Source: Dorn, 2013).. XIII.. Silica glaze Silica glaze is clear white to orange shiny luster in colour but it can be darker in. its appearance, as it names this element compose mainly amorphous silica and aluminium and iron. Microbial activities and detrital inputs could explain the abundance of these elements on Earth surfaces. This coating starts with the soluble AlSi complex that is major with silicate mineral surfaces.. b). a). Figure 2. 14: Shows Silica glaze under microscope found in the Mauna Loa lava flow. (Source: Dorn, 2013).. 26. FYP FSB. b). a).

(38) Sulphate crust This type of rock coating can be identified from the formation of sulphate. occurring on rocks of a sedimentary deposit. Due to the transport of elements, the formation of black crusts that can be seen occurring on marble and limestone can be seen. These types of rocks will undergo anthropogenic pollution during humid weather is exposed continuously.. Figure 2. 15: Shows sulphate crust on marble tombstone found in Old Fellowship Cemetery in Atlanta Georgia, USA ( Source: Dorn, 2013).. 27. FYP FSB. XIV..

(39) MATERIALS AND METHOD. 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, materials and methods that are used to complete this study are discussed. The method that is used can be divided into four categories which are preliminary studies, accumulation of data (primary and secondary data), data interpretation and analysis and data comparison.. 28. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 3.

(40) There are some materials and apparatus that were used for this research during data collection and interpretation.. 3.2.1 Basic Materials Table 3. 1: The basic material for undergoing this research project.. Material. Explanation. Base map of study area. For this mapping an area of 1:25000 being carried out for. interpretation. of. geological works with field report and pictures Geological field book. to record any data of the study area, this includes sketching. of. outcrop,. description of rock sample and any information to write field report. 29. FYP FSB. 3.2 Materials and Apparatus.

(41) FYP FSB. 3.2.2 Specific Instrument and Software i). ArcGis. ii). Google Earth. iii). Microsoft Words. 3.3 Methodology Methodology is a systematic planning of overall conducted step for this research including theoretical analysis, gathering of data and also data interpretation and analysis and data comparison. This helps in making this research more understandable and well-organized. The steps are doing the preliminary study, data collection from primary data and to secondary data, field observation and data interpretation and geology mapping and data analysis.. 3.3.1 Preliminary Studies Before mapping, several researches were studied in order to understand about rock coating especially and what sample should be taken and also to find the method to be used for the analysis of these samples. There are 14 different types of rock coating therefore to differentiate each one of this coating is important to avoid wrong of data collection. According to Ronald I Dorn (2013) is his book said that there are 5 general hierarchies of control that explain the occurrences of different types of rock coatings following the landscape geochemistry paradigm. There are several statements in this 30.

(42) First order- Geomorphic process controls the stability of bedrock surfaces on which coating form. Second order- Coating that are originated from a rock fissures occur at subaerial surfaces when the overlying rock surface undergoes erosion. Third order- The fast-growing of lithobiants habitat in the area such as lichens can determine whether slowly accreting coatings occur. Fourth order- rock coating can occur if the raw ingredients have a transport pathway to the rock surface and of course must be present. Fifth order- Physical, geochemical or biological barriers to the transport then results in the coating's accretion. Besides, the general geology of the study area such as geomorphology, structural geology and lithology of the rock is first studied and identify base on the base map for ease of mapping.. 3.3.2 Data Collection (primary and secondary data) For data collection, there are two types which are primary data collection and secondary data collection. Primary data is a first-hand data source that is collected by the researcher himself, this involved data collection during geological mapping, surveys and interviews while secondary data is a collection of data based from previous studies, base map, satellite imaging and Ground Information System (GIS) which is 31. FYP FSB. paradigm which are:.

(43) analysis of this research.. 3.3.3 Field Observation and Interpretation This process is to complete the geological map of study area in Dabong, it is important to document all the data in the structural geology, lithology, stratigraphy and any geological studies. For mapping, the main inquire is to observe and measure geological information and evidences of weathering, landslide, rockfall of any incident that contribute to the knowledge of the community. Hence, during field observation it is compulsory to analyse the important aspects of geological feature to predict the landform and geological data of the study area such as land use, or water catchment area and more. Methods that are used during the field observation were majorly from the base map of the study area by using satellite imaginary data based on the Google Earth. From there, the map is observed by using terrain map to do analysis, for better understanding of the study area research on the history of geological of the study area is first conducted to know the detail on the contacts of rock especially between difference formations, groups and types based on previous researches near the study area. Then from these data form a geological map that gives interpretation about the study area in a base map. For interpretation, a deep understanding of a basic geological map should be studied first to interpret the study area based on the base map acquired. This process is important as to conduct any field study during this Movement Restricted Order (RMO) is not allowed. So, keeping the standard for this research to do a geological 32. FYP FSB. gathered from the already studied research. Both types of data are important for further.

(44) location gathered from past researchers and geological agencies.. 3.3.4 Geologic Map and Data Specification For geological mapping, all the data of sampling and observation during the field have been processed in all major geology aspects such as lithology, structural, stratigraphy, mineralogy, sedimentology and depositional environment. These steps are done and mapped based on the field observation. All of this information is processed and interpreted using ArcGis software to produce a geological map. Additional data of the study area is gathered from past researcher of the study area and also data received from JUPEM.. 3.3.5 Data Compilation and Comparison Data were collected from several references all including journal, websites, thesis and books about rock coating study. Compiled and compare based on the types, physical properties, geochemical analyses and petrography of rock coating.. 33. FYP FSB. mapping the observation was based on the satellite view imaginary and data on the.

(45) GENERAL GEOLOGY. 4.1 Introduction The area of interest in this research project is located in Kampung Kemubu, Dabong, Kelantan. It is a small town that was founded near a huge batholith near the area which is the Stong Complex or known by the citizen as Gunung Stong. This chapter explained about the geological studies of the study area in term of geomorphology, lithostratigraphy, structural geology and historical geology of 34. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 4.

(46) and the geological map that has been produced is in scale of 1:25000. Geomorphology of the study area will emphasize on the drainage pattern that was formed in the area. Lithostratigraphy will involve with identification of rock units that were defined and characterized from their lithologic properties, which gain from secondary data and via their stratigraphic relations. While structural geology will focus on the geological formation that was predicted and assumed in the study based on aerial photograph and previous researches. Lastly, for historical geology will concerned about the history and aged of the rock formation and also interpret the depositional environment of the area in the past.. 4.1.1 Accessibility (in the study area) Accessibility is referring to the area that can be accessed from one place to another by using main road, off-road and others. In general, it enables the places to be connected and accessible for use. Based on the accessibility in Kampung Kemubu, it has been observed that it have main road, which is called as Jalan Dabong-Kemubu Road. This road is a bituminous road that is the main road for visitors or the citizen themselves to go in and out of Kemubu. Other than that, there also have nonbituminous road, which is the unpaved or off-road track that was found normally on the plantation and vegetation, or farm area in Kemubu. It was often used by the farmers via motorcycle due to the road that is small in diameter. For the localization area of the 35. FYP FSB. Kampung Kemubu region in Dabong, Kelantan. The study area was in 5x5km square.

(47) proper and easy to access because it is also bituminous road. Beside roads, modes of transport at the region is train as there is a Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) railway station in the center of the area. The train becomes famous travel among the citizen to go around the area such as to Masjid Mukim Kemubu, Kampung Kemubu Rural Library and to Sekolah Kebangsaan Kemubu as there are no other transport facilities such as buses or taxis. Moreover, there is Kemubu Bridge that connects the main road to cross along Sungai Galas.. Figure 4. 1: Shows the accessibility map of the study area.. 36. FYP FSB. Kemubu resident, the road that connects between each house was a minor road but still.

(48) FYP FSB Figure 4. 2: Shows the railway station in Kampung Kemubu (Source: railtravelstation.com). 4.1.2 Settlement Based on geography, settlement is a locality or a populated place where a community was present in which people live, including buildings, roads, and streets. Combination of these elements would help in developing communications between the communities. Settlement is divided into two section which is a classification of settlement that was based on size population and housing density factors, and the other one is types of settlements. Classification of settlement. There are two classifications which are rural settlement and urban settlement. a.. Rural settlement means an area of small size that has low population density and also low housing number. It is further classified into 4 grades in term of sizes, which are: 37.

(49) Grades. Definitions. Single homestead. A one isolated compound which own by a family that is kilometers away from the next compound.. Farmstead. A dispersed type of populations usually in a farmland that comprising two or more homestead making up the total number of population to be around 50 individuals.. Hamlet. Comprising a combination of linear, nucleated and dispersed types of population and equipped with essential foundation such as schools, shops and other service centers. This types of population comprise hundreds of person who undergoing primary activities such as hunting, fishing and farming as major role.. Village. An advanced version of hamlet grades, which still have combination of nucleated, dispersed and linear population but is more advanced in its social service centers because it have health center (hospital), post offices and markets, plus it started to developed crafting and cottage industries. (Source: steemit.com). 38. FYP FSB. Table 4. 1: Shows rural settlements classification.

(50) b.. Urban settlement is a larger population in size and the housing is built next to each other, showing high density population and larger housing number.. Table 4. 2: Shows the urban settlement classification. Grades. Definitions. Towns. Reaching populations up to several thousand persons, and the housing is built close to each other, the community undergoes primary, secondary and tertiary occupation. For facilities, it has large chain stores (supermarkets) and many other social and commercial sectors.. Cities. Is larger than towns and is assumed as the major towns of a country. Addictive characters is that it has administrative functions.. Conurbation. Compose two or more towns that have grown and joined forming a larger urban area of over 1 million persons or nearly.. Megapolis. Combination of several cities or conurbations that have grown years and joined forming a massive sprawling urbanization settlement. This is the highest hierarchy in the settlements.. Moreover, for types of settlement, there are 4 types which are nucleated settlement, linear settlement, dispersed settlement and isolated settlement. For Kampung Kemubu itself, the settlement of the study area is: i.. Isolated settlement: A remote single house or farm far from each other, usually found in hunting rural or farming communities.. ii. Dispersed settlement: Comprises several houses in scattered pattern which means the neighboring house distance from each other maybe one or more kilometers apart. 39. FYP FSB. Urban settle.

(51) linked by roads. These houses are arranged in nearly circular or irregular shape. This settlement can either be urban or rural settlements, depends on its function. iv. Linear settlement: The houses are arranged in an elongated linear line following a line such as road, river or coastline. This types of settlement can be find in rural area, however can be developed into make up extensions of towns becoming urban settlement.. Figure 4. 3: Shows the pattern of classifying settlements (Source: steemit.com). Kampung Kemubu is located near a batholith igneous rock which is the east of Stong Complex and near Kampung Batu Kapor, Kampung Batu Sawa and Kampung Jeram. It is site on undulating plain and the highest peak would be 321m. Discussing on the scope for classification of settlement for Kampung Kemubu, this area was rural settlements as per definition, rural settlement is referring to an area of small size and has low population density and a low housing number. This was due to the population of people in Kemubu area is low to be assumed as urban settlement. The grades for Kampung Kemubu would be classified into the village. This is because the patterns of housing area in the area are nucleated, linear and dispersed settlement. 40. FYP FSB. iii. Nucleated settlement: A compact pattern comprises clustered buildings that were.

(52) the population is centered at the railway station. While the dispersed pattern can be seen near the plantation and vegetation area among the farmers in the area.. 4.1.4 Landuse (Forestry or Vegetation) In terms of definition, landuse is using the natural environment into building conducive environments by involving management and modification. Example are using a free potential plantation area as a farmland for orchard, vegetation and plantation that can be harvested for economical purposes or for household usage. In case of Kampung Kemubu the farmers have conduct various types of plantation such as rubber trees, oil palm, banana plantations, and coconut trees. In terms of economical and residential area, in the map of the study area is clear that the population was dense in the center of the study area as it is the main platform of transportation, connectivity, commercial purposes and community services.. 41. FYP FSB. The linear and nucleated pattern can be seen clearly on the map of study area where.

(53) FYP FSB Figure 4. 4: Shows landuse map of Kampung Kemubu. 4.2 Geomorphology. 4.2.1 Topography of study area. The topography of Negeri Kelantan ranges from mainly of highlands area from west and south, followed by a flat coastline area to the north. In a topography map, a three-dimensional map will show the ups and downs of the terrain in the study area with the help of contour lines. The closer the distance between each contour line, the 42.

(54) steep. The highest elevation on the study area can be seen on the map that is 321m, while the lowest elevation is 4m above the sea water level.. Legend Contour Contour 10; 20; 30; 40; 60; 70; 80; 90; 110; 120; 130; 140; 160; 170; 180; 190; 210; 220; 230; 240; 260; 270; 280; 290; 310; 320; 330; 340; 360; 370 50; 100; 150; 200; 250; 300; 350. Figure 4. 5: Shows the topography map of Kampung Kemubu. 43. FYP FSB. steeper the terrain while bigger distance of the contour lines, hence the terrain is less.

(55) Geomorphology is a huge branch in geology that give great impact in understanding the Earth. Based on the British Society for Geomorphology, they described geomorphology as a study of the landforms, their processes, forms and sediments on the Earth surface. The surface processes include study on behavior of air, water and ice in shaping the earth surfaces. Most geomorphic processes work at a slow pace, but occasionally there is a major event, such as landslides or flooding, which causes rapid change to the ecosystem and sometimes threatens humans. In the Perspectives of Geomorphology, Volume 1 by Hari Shanker Sharma state that geomorphology covers many aspects including regional to coastal area landforms, fluvial area, depositional environment, structural formation, climatic factors and applied geomorphology. Hari Shanker Sharma also adds that geomorphology can be observed when equipped with adequate geological memoirs, records and maps, topographical maps and aerial photographs. Hence, in simple words, geomorphology is a study that focusing on the shape of landforms and processes involved. In general, landforms is produced due to the erosion effect, deposition and weathering of rocks due to physical or mechanical force, biological effect from the animals and plants or even microorganisms and chemical activity from various factors, these processes will causes transportation or deposition of the rock mass to different localities. Moreover, various climatic conditions also effects the geomorphology of an area with different types of landforms.While in hot places like dessert the landforms are sand dunes and dunes, these landforms is a lot different from the glacial and periglacial. features. found. in. polar. and. sub-polar. regions.. Ultimately,. geomorphologists will map the distribution of these landforms in order to better 44. FYP FSB. 4.2.2 Geomorphologic classification (with geomorphologic unit map).

(56) FYP FSB. understand their occurrence.. Figure 4. 6: Shows the three-dimensional model of the study area. 4.2.3 Drainage pattern Drainage pattern is a geological observation about the flow of water in forms of rivers, streams, and lakes throughout a particular region, whether it is a hard rock surface or between the soft rocks layer or even on the gradient of the land. The action of these water movements will develop a drainage basin performing various types of drainage pattern. Different types of drainage patterns show different types of geomorphology. There is dendritic pattern, parallel drainage, rectangular drainage, trellis drainage, radial drainage, centripetal drainage, deranged drainage and angular drainage. 45.

(57) FYP FSB Dendritic Drainage System. Parallel Drainage Pattern. Figure 4. 7: Shows the drainage pattern in Kampung Kemubu. The drainage pattern in Kampung Kemubu is focusing on two types of drainage patterns which are dendritic drainage pattern and parallel drainage pattern. The dendritic pattern overwhelmed the south side of the study area due to the formation of the hard bedrock in the area. The hard bedrock is referring to the andesite rock that governed the area. The second major is the parallel drainage system. This pattern is caused by a steep slope that is due to the formation of limestone karst in the study area 46.

(58) parallel drainage is possible moreover the evidences of a tributary from the main river Sungai Galas which is Sungai Stong.. 4.3 Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy is an element of stratigraphy that explain about the nomenclature of rocks on the Earth based on their lithology and stratigraphy relations. Lithostratigraphy units are bodies of rocks that are bedded or unbedded that define and characterized the basis of lithological properties in an area. It also correlates with its stratigraphic relations.. 47. FYP FSB. causing the slope in the area is higher compared to the east side of the study area, hence.

(59) FYP FSB Figure 4. 8: Shows the lithology map of the study area. 48.

(60) Stong Migmatic Complex A formation of karst in the east of the study area. This karst comprise stalagmite, stalactite, and cave pillars. Mogan, 2013 conclude that the presence of light gray on the karst is mineral calcite that shows the process of metamorphism in the region. The Stong Migmatic Complex began in late Cretaceous age. The process happen when a tectonic processes cause injection of magma intrude through a sedimentary rock, thus producing a batholith( a large mass of intrusive igneous rock). The range of this batholith is about 8km west of the railway town of Kemubu and Dabong (Hutchison, 2009).. 4.3.2 Unit explanation The specimen of the rock sample were taken based on past thesis from the closest area with the study area. Limestones Limestones rock specimen was tested with a dilute hydrochloric (HCL) acid to test for the present of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The test showed bubbles were formed and a fizzing sound was heard. Hence, the specimen is a limestone and can be classified into Dunham classification. Shale This rock specimen was classified as sedimentary rock because it is easy to weathered and broken down, but from a naked eye view the texture of the sedimentary rock is smooth hence it is assumed as shale based on its texture and also gray to black 49. FYP FSB. 4.3.1 Stratigraphic position (of all units).

(61) Andesite The sample that was collected is at the coordinate of N05˚23’19.9”, E101˚58’43.2’’ which is near Kampung Batu Sungai that is east of study area. The height of the outcrop reaches 3.5 m while its width is 6.0 m. The outcrop was near the road and found on a hill landform. Based on figure 11, the outcrop was covered with vegetation.. Figure 4. 9: Shows the andesite outcrop next to a main road. (Source : Norwahidah, 2017). Figure 4. 10: Shows the specimen of weathered andesite in Kampung Batu Sungai. (Source : Norwahidah, 2017). Based on the specimen shown in figure 4.10, the texture of the rock is assumed to be medium to rough surface. Its colour was dark brown, showing of chemical weathering. Plus, from the view of naked eyes the mineral is small but still can be seen hence it is considered as aphanitic rock. 50. FYP FSB. colour..

(62) FYP FSB. 4.4 Structural Geology. Figure 4. 11: Shows the linearment map of the study area.. 4.4.1 Fault In the study area, an obvious fault that can be seen happening million years ago it the formation of Sungai Galas and Sungai Stong. Sungai Galas is the main river river while Sungai Stong is the tributary of this rivers.. 51.

(63) FYP FSB Figure 4. 12: Shows the rose diagram for the joint analysis in specific area in Kampung Kemubu.. 4.4.2 Fold In this study area, folding is focusing on the minor fold that can be seen occur on field but hard to tell by using satellite imagery.. 4.5 Historical Geology Table 4. 3: Shows the stratigraphic column of the rock lithology in the study area.. 52.

(64) the lithostratigraphic column. The metamorphic rock and granite formed associated with Stong Migmatite Complex during Triassic period as the granite intrude the metamorphic rock, which are schist, phyllite and marble. Then, in Quaternary period, the alluvium is formed.. 53. FYP FSB. The study area comprises rocks from Permian until Quaternary period based on.

(65) ROCK COATING AS A RECORD OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES. 5.1 Introduction This chapter reviews about the types and properties of rock coating that was identified in the study area of Dabong. The identification of these rocks were based on lithology data and thin section analysis of rock samples from previous researchers supported by the laboratory analysis of the X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) of the oxide mineral and trace element in the rock itself. There is no laboratory practice were done 54. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 5.

(66) samples from the study area, hence analysis by using SEM and XRF was not possible. All references and data were based on primary and secondary data. For a collection of data, the area involve are the states of Kelantan which will further elaborate on this chapter review. The data that was collected from each district is the lithology of rock samples in specific study area and also the geochemistry results provided. From these data, a discussion and conclusion is made to determine the types of coating present on the rock samples and how does different localities give different or same variation of coating relates with the environment changes in an area.. 5.1.1 Localities of Rock Coating Samples. Figure 5. 1: Shows the maps of study area in Kelantan, the study area was highlighted in red lines.. This subtopic will explain on the specific area where the data were taken, as based on figure 5.1, the study area involved are Jeli and Tanah Merah. The area is chosen as 55. FYP FSB. during this interpretation because there is no geological mapping nor having rock.

(67) minerals, hence the area choose will be a representative of the Kelantan area. The specific area of each locality is listed below in the table.. 56. FYP FSB. the study area based on the avaibility of geochemistry data on the XRF analysis of.

(68) Area. Coordinate. Rock Samples. Observation and Description. 1. Kampung Batu Gajah, Tanah Merah (source: Ahmad Nizam,2017 ). 05° 49’54” N until 05° 47’11” N and 101° 57’34” E until 102° 01’16” E. Granite. The image shows a boulder of granite that is highly weathered with chemical weathering. Showing a layer of thick coats on the granite due to the exposure to terrestrial weathering environment where it keeps warm and humid.. Mineral composition. Alkali Feldspar: 50% Quartz: 20% Plagioclase Feldspar: 10%. Types of Rock Coating. Case Hardenin g/ Heavy metal skin. Biotite: 10% Amphibole: 5% Other Minerals: 5% Pyroxene, Olivine. Schist. Based on the image of the rock samples, it can clearly be seen the layer of rocks that coating the parent rocks, which is to identify as schist based on the composition of the mineral contents. Weathered rock is highly prominent to undergoes coating such as this sample.. 57. Quartz: 45% Feldspar: 20% Muscovite: 15% Biotite: 10% Amphibole: 5% Other Minerals: 5% Graphite, Chlorite, Garnet, Talc. Case Hardening. FYP FSB. No.

(69) Kampung Kalai, Jeli(Source: Nurul Aina, 2020). 05° 46’54‘‘N Marble until 05° 44’5’’ N and 101° 43‘42‘‘E until 101° 46‘30.47’’ E. Schist interbedded with shale. 58. Based on the image, the outcrop is marble with white to milky-white colour. It has fine grain that cannot be seen with naked eyes, which is aphanitic texture. Undergoes all three weathering of biological, physical and chemically weathered.. 100 % Calcite. Nitrate crust. And interbedded outcrop showing a dark grey colored rock, this rock is considered as schist and white to colourless rock that is considered as meta-quartz arenite. The grain of the rock is not obvious.. 71 % Quartz 1 % Epidote 20 % Biotite 3 % Opaque mineral 5% Clay mineral. Lithobiontics Coating/ Rock varnish. FYP FSB. 2.

(70) Based on the image, it can be seen that the rock is dark grey. The rock has a coarse grain size. The outcrop has going through a physical weathering by the action of water causing the rock physical characteristics to become less resistant.. 45 % Quartz 3 % Epidote 49% Pyroxeneorto 3 % Opaque mineral. Iron films. Quartz Rich Granitoid. The colour present are white, colourless, grey and black. The granite sample has going through a discolouration due to the chemical weathering of surroundings weather. The rock samples can be seen with naked eyes having another coating or layering of a rock layer from showing its parents rock. It has massive structure of quartz that can be seen with naked eyes in the. 8 % Chlorite 18 % Biotite 60 % Quartz 4 % Opaque mineral 5 % Plagioclase 5% Other Mineral. Case Hardening/ Iron Films. 59. FYP FSB. Granulite.

(71) Hornfels. 60. 47 % Quartz 15 % Biotite 3 % Opaque mineral 15 % Silica-Clay mineral 15 % Clay-oxide mineral 5% Other Mineral. Case hardening/ Rock varnish. FYP FSB. hand specimen hence considered as phaneritic texture. Based on the hand specimen in the sources, the colour present that can be seed is pinkish-to-grey fine grain. This outcrop has many joints and a clear fault because of the mini waterfall when it was found. The texture of this rock is considered as an aphanitic texture..

(72) 5.2.1 Interpretation of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis This subtopic will further elaborate on the interpretation of the XRF analysis in the study area that concerning on the distribution of heavy mineral in the respected area. The result showed were tabulated according to their localities. Locality 1: Kampung Batu Gajah, Tanah Merah Table 5. 1: Shows the oxides compounds composition in both samples.. Value (%) Elements (Oxides Compounds) Granite sample Schist sample SiO2. 60.6. 61.3. Al2O3. 11.3. 12. K2O. 9.4. 11.1. CaO. 5.57. 3.88. Fe2O3. 7.5. 6.71. TiO2. 1.32. 0.913. P2O5. 1.04. 1.12. SO3. 1.1. 1.05. Cl. 0.671. 0.669. ZrO2. 0.502. 0.173. BaO. 0.337. 0.597. Na2O. -. -. Total. 99.34. 99.51. 61. (Source: Ahmad Nizam, 2017). FYP FSB. 5.2 Results and Interpretation.

(73) of other elements in oxide compounds is aluminium oxide (Al2O3) at 11.30 %; sulphur trioxide (SO3) at 1.10 %; iron oxide (Fe2O3) at 7.50 %; calcium oxide (CaO) at 5.57 %; titanium dioxide (TiO2) at 1.32%; potassium oxide (K2O) at 9.40 % ; chloride (Cl) held 0.671 %; barium oxide (BaO) held 0.337%; zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) held of 0.502 % and lastly phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) at 1.04 %. There is no percentage of sodium oxide (Na2O) in the sample. For schist sample contains silicon dioxide (SiO2) at a rate of 61.30 %. The percentage of other elements in oxide compounds is aluminium oxide (Al2O3) at 12 %; sulphur trioxide (SO3) at 1.05 %; iron oxide (Fe2O3) at 6.71 %; calcium oxide (CaO) at 3.88 %; titanium dioxide (TiO2) at 0.913 %; potassium oxide (K2O) at 11.1 % ; cloride (Cl) held 0.669 %; barium oxide (BaO) held 0.597 %; zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) held of 0.173 % and lastly phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) at 1.12 %. Also, there is no percentage of sodium oxide (Na2O) in the sample.. 62. FYP FSB. For granite sample contains 60.60 % of silicon dioxide (SiO2). The percentage.

(74) FYP FSB Figure 5. 2: Shows a comparison of the distribution of trace element contain in both samples analyses using XRF analysis (Source: Ahmad Nizam, 2017). From these trace elements distribution of sample granite and schist is can be concluded that sample granite has a higher percentage of strontium (Sr), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), tin (Sn), Niobium (Nb), gallium (Ga), and Bismuth (Bi) elements while schist sample have higher percentage of iodine (I) and Tellurium (Te). These elements give distinctive characteristics to the physical and chemical properties of the samples itself. Locality 2: Kampung Kalai Interpreting XRF analysis in Kampung Kalai was not based on the lithology of the collected samples, however its analysis was from 14 different localities of soil samples taken in the study area in which each one has its own specific coordinate. The samples taken have no specific criteria to its in term of its depthness nor its mass. All of this sample and result of geochemical analysis is based on Nurul Aina, 2020. 63.

(75) STATION DESCRIPTION. Lithology: Schist metasediments Weathering: Medium biological weathering Geomorphology: A main river of Sungai Tadoh surround by high vegetation. The type of river is a meandering river.. SAMPLE. Grain size: Poorly graded sand, mix with a little organic. DESCRIPTION. matter. The particle shape is a combination of sub- angular and sub rounded. Colour: Light brown.. Sample 2. STATION DESCRIPTION. Lithology: Schist with some weathered material from igneous rock. Weathering: Medium stage of weathering Geomorphology: Small river with outcrop and surround by vegetation. Structure geology: Foliation and joint.. SAMPLE. Grain size: Poorly graded sand, mix with a little organic. DESCRIPTION. matter.. 64. FYP FSB. Sample 1..