THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MALAYSIAN UNDERGRADUATE
STUDYING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
by
ROKIAH BINTI PAEE
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
August 2017
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
Alhamdulillahi Rabbil A’lamin for all the bounties He has showered me which enable me to complete this manuscript. There are many people I would like to thank for their generous contributions which have made even the toughest moments bearable and the whole process fruitful and memorable. Without them, this manuscript would not have seen the light of the day.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my family for their prayers, patience, love, continual support, encouragement and understanding throughout my life.
Second, my thanks go to UNIMAS and Ministry of Education Malaysia, who gave me the opportunities to pursue my study and sponsored me during the period.
Third, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Prof Dr Hairul Nizam Ismail and my Co supervisor, Prof Dr Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan Abdullah for their valuable guidance and inspiring advice throughout the different stages of this study.
Fourth, I also want to extend my gratitude to all academic staff of School of Educational Studies, particularly to AP Dr Shaik Malik, AP Dr Jafre, AP Dr Nordin, and AP Dr Ali for the numerous feedbacks and statistical advice. I have also benefited a lot from the colloquiums, seminars, workshops, prospectus, proposal defence and pre-viva session that have been conducted regularly at our school.
Fifth, I would like to thank all the Japanese language instructors, whom most of them are my dear friends for their cooperation and support. I am also extremely thankful to all of the students who gave me inspiration and energy over the years and who were
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kind enough to participate in this research, to whom I owe for the successful completion of my work.
Finally, I must also acknowledge all of my colleagues at the Faculty of Language and Communication, UNIMAS for their moral and intellectual support before and throughout the period of my study. My gratitude also goes to my cohorts in the doctoral program and to my beloved friends for their invaluable support and devoted friendship:
Yok, Tie, Nin, Zorai, Eriko, Kak Ani, Farah, Ibrahim, Ahmad, Eileen, Lai Yong, Clarina, Shidah, Anis, Billie, Ili and Jeya.
May Allah reward and bless all of you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv
LIST OF TABLES ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii
ABSTRAK ... xiii
ABSTRACT ... xv
CHAPTER 1 ... 1
Introduction ... 1
Japanese Language Education in Malaysia ... 3
Japanese Language Education in the World ... 6
Problem Statement ... 6
Research Objectives ... 12
Research Questions ... 12
Significance of the Study ... 13
Limitation ... 14
Operational Definitions of Terms ... 15
1.9.1 Foreign Language ... 16
1.9.2 Learning Orientation ... 16
1.9.3 Motivation ... 17
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1.9.4 Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) ... 17
1.9.5 Anxiety Coping Strategies (ACS) ... 18
Overview ... 18
CHAPTER 2 ... 19
Introduction ... 19
Definition and Conceptions ... 19
2.2.1 Orientation ... 19
2.2.2 Motivation ... 21
2.2.3 Motivation in Learning L2/FL ... 21
2.2.4 Anxiety ... 23
2.2.5 Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) ... 24
2.2.6 Coping Strategies... 27
2.2.7 Foreign Language Anxiety Coping Strategies ... 28
Models and Theories ... 30
2.3.1 Socio-Educational Model ... 30
2.3.2 Self Determination Theory ... 35
2.3.3 Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s Theory of FLA ... 37
Previous Research ... 39
2.4.1 Orientation ... 39
2.4.2 Foreign Language Learning Motivation ... 47
2.4.3 Foreign Language Anxiety ... 50
2.4.4 Foreign Language Anxiety Coping Strategies ... 62
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Conceptual Framework ... 65
Summary ... 66
CHAPTER 3 ... 67
Introduction ... 67
Research Design ... 67
3.2.1 Web-based Online Survey ... 68
3.2.2 Semi-structured Interview ... 69
Research Sampling ... 70
3.3.1 Sampling Technique ... 70
3.3.2 Sampling Population ... 70
Research Instruments ... 75
3.4.1 Questionnaire ... 75
3.4.2 Interview Protocol ... 78
Instruments’ Validity and Reliability ... 79
3.5.1 Instruments’ Validity ... 79
3.5.2 Instruments’ Reliability ... 80
3.5.3 Pilot Study ... 82
Research Procedure ... 92
3.6.1 Quantitative ... 92
3.6.2 Qualitative ... 93
Data Analysis ... 94
3.7.1 Quantitative Data ... 94
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3.7.2 Qualitative Data ... 96
Summary ... 98
CHAPTER 4 ... 100
Introduction ... 100
The Profile of the Participants ... 101
The Findings Based on the Research Questions ... 104
4.3.1 Research Question One ... 104
4.3.2 Research Question Two ... 105
4.3.3 Research Question Three ... 107
4.3.4 Research Question Four ... 109
4.3.5 Research Question Five ... 112
Summary ... 156
CHAPTER 5 ... 159
Introduction ... 159
Reason to Learn Japanese ... 160
Motivational Strength ... 166
Sources of Anxiety ... 168
How to Cope with Anxious Feeling ... 174
Differences Across Demographics Variables ... 179
5.6.1 Differences by Gender ... 179
5.6.2 Differences by Bumiputera Status ... 180
5.6.3 Differences by Academic Major ... 182
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5.6.4 Differences by Foreign Language Experience ... 184
Pedagogical Implications ... 185
5.7.1 Visitor session ... 186
5.7.2 Inculculate Japanese Culture ... 187
5.7.3 Listening to Learners’ Voice ... 188
5.7.4 Provide Friendly Learning Environment ... 189
5.7.5 Using Authentic Materials ... 191
Recommendations for Future Research ... 192
Summary ... 194
REFERENCES ... 196 APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 1.1: Japanese Language Education in Malaysia (The Japan
Foundation, 2013) ………...…5
Table 2.2: Studies on the Learning Orientation of FL………...42
Table 2.3: Learning Orientation of Malaysian FL Learners from the View of FL Instructors (Ainol Madziah Zubairi & Isarji Sarudin, 2009) ...………...44
Table 3.1: The Summary of Scales………... 78
Table 3.2: Interpretation of Cronbach’s Alpha’s Value……….… 81
Table 3.3: Summary of Internal Consistency Indices for the Reliability of the Final Questionnaire………82
Table 3.4: Japanese Language Learning Orientation Scale………...86
Table 3.5: Japanese Language Learning Motivation Scale ………..87
Table 3.6: Japanese Language Classroom Anxiety Scale ……….89
Table 3.7: Japanese Language Classroom Anxiety Coping Scale ………91
Table 3.8: An Overview of Research Questions, Data Sources and Analysis Tools ……….99
Table 4.1: Sample Demographic Characteristic………….……….…………103
Table 4.2: Variables’ Mean and Standard Deviation………...……104
Table 4.3: Interpretation of Means Value for all Scales (Tsao, 1999) ………105
Table 4.4: The Types and Rank of Learning Orientation…………...……….105
Table 4.5: The Types and Rank of Motivation………106
Table 4.6: The Types and Rank of FLA ……….106
Table 4.7: The Types and Rank of ACS……….………….107
Table 4.8: Correlation among Variables………..108
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Table 4.9: Interpretation of the r Value and the Strength of the
Relationship (Healey, 2012)...………..……..108
Table 4.10: Means, Standard Deviation, and Results of ANOVA by Gender……….109
Table 4.11: Means, Standard Deviation, and Results of ANOVA by Bumiputera Status………..110
Table 4.12: Means, Standard Deviation, and Results of ANOVA by Academic Major……….…111
Table 4.13: Means, Standard Deviation, and Results of ANOVA by FL Experience ………112
Table 4.14: Sample Demographic Characteristic………..113
Table 4.15: Themes for Learning Orientation………...114
Table 4.16: Themes for Motivation………...130
Table 4.17: Themes for Foreign Language Anxiety………..138
Table 4.18: Themes for Anxiety Coping Strategies………...149
Table 4.19: The Learners’ Level of Learning Orientation, Motivation, FLA and ACS………...………..157
Table 4.20: The Type and Rank of Learners’ Learning Orientation, Motivation, FLA and ACS……….157
Table 4.21: The Strength of Relationship among Variables ……….157
Table 4.22: ANOVA Results on Socio Demographics Variables …………....158
Table 4.23: Learners’ Views on Learning Orientation, Motivation, FLA and ACS Based on Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis……...158
Table 5.1: Similarities in Shape………...170
Table 5.2: Different Fonts Used………...170
Table 5.3: Confusing Hiragana and Katakana’s Characters………170
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1: Kondo and Yang’s (2004) Concept on Anxiety Coping Strategies .... 29
Figure 2.2: Part of the Socio-Educational Model of Language Learning ... 32
Figure 2.3: Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s (1986) Theory on FLA ... 37
Figure 2.4: Conceptual Framework ... 66
Figure 3.1: Research Design ... 68
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FL Foreign Language
L1 First/Native Language
L2 Second Language
FLA Foreign Language Anxiety
ACS Anxiety Coping Strategy
JFL Japanese as a Foreign Language
FLCAS Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale JLLOS Japanese Language Learning Orientation Scale JLLMS Japanese Language Learning Motivation Scale JLCAS Japanese Language Classroom Anxiety Scale
JLACSS Japanese Language Anxiety Coping Strategies Scale
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PENGARUH FAKTOR PSIKOLOGI KE ATAS PELAJAR SARJANA MUDA YANG MEMPELAJARI BAHASA JEPUN SEBAGAI BAHASA
ASING DI MALAYSIA
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pembolehubah psikologi yang mempengaruhi pelajar sarjana muda yang mempelajari bahasa Jepun asas sebagai bahasa asing di universiti awam di Malaysia. Kaedah gabungan kualitatif dan kuantitatif telah digunakan untuk mendalami isu berkaitan orientasi pembelajaran, motivasi, kebimbangan terhadap bahasa asing dan strategi menangani kebimbangan.
Pada fasa pertama iaitu fasa kuantitatif, pengkaji mengumpul data daripada 459 pelajar daripada tujuh universiti awam dengan menggunakan borang kaji selidik atas talian manakala pada fasa kedua iaitu fasa kualitatif, pengkaji mengumpul data daripada 24 pelajar daripada lima universiti awam melalui temu bual separa berstruktur. Statistik deskriptif menunjukkan pelajar bahasa Jepun di Malaysia mempunyai pelbagai sebab yang kuat untuk mempelajari bahasa Jepun, mempunyai tahap motivasi dan kebimbangan yang tinggi, manakala bagi penggunaan strategi menangani kebimbangan, ia berada di tahap sederhana. Hasil analisis kedua-dua jenis data, pelajar mempunyai lima jenis orientasi pembelajaran (komunikasi, minat terhadap bahasa dan budaya, kerjaya masa depan, pengaruh luar, dan keperluan gred), tiga jenis motivasi (sikap terhadap bahasa Jepun, keinginan mempelajari bahasa Jepun, dan usaha) tiga jenis kebimbangan (kebimbangan dalam menangani bahasa Jepun, kebimbangan terhadap prestasi, dan rasa rendah diri) dan menggunakan enam jenis strategi menangani kebimbangan (pengambilan risiko, mendapatkan bantuan, berfikiran positif, bersantai, persediaan dan putus asa). Dapatan kajian juga mendapati orientasi pembelajaran, motivasi, kebimbangan terhadap bahasa asing dan strategi
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menangani kebimbangan adalah berhubungkait. Pemeriksaan lanjut mengenai perbezaan di kalangan peserta berdasarkan pembolehubah demografi iaitu jantina, status Bumiputera, bidang akademik dan pengalaman bahasa asing, menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan di antara kumpulan. Bagi pemboleh ubah jantina, pelajar perempuan mengalami tahap kebimbangan yang lebih tinggi berbanding pelajar lelaki.
Kumpulan Bumiputera pula mempunyai sebab-sebab yang lebih kukuh untuk mengambil kelas bahasa Jepun, mempunyai tahap motivasi dan kebimbangan yang lebih tinggi dan menggunakan lebih banyak strategi dalam menangani kebimbangan.
Pelajar yang mempunyai pengalaman mempelajari bahasa Jepun, didapati memiliki motivasi yang tinggi, tahap kebimbangan yang lebih rendah dan mempunyai sebab yang lebih kukuh untuk mengikuti kelas bahasa Jepun. Bidang akademik pula didapati tidak mempunyai kesan statistik yang signifikan ke atas semua pembolehubah.
Penemuan ini turut menegaskan pentingnya data kualitatif dalam memeriksa pembolehubah psikologi yang berkaitan dengan pelajar bahasa. Cadangan untuk mengekalkan motivasi pelajar dan untuk mengurangkan perasaan bimbang mereka turut diselitkan: (a) menyediakan platform untuk pelajar berkomunikasi dengan penutur asli Jepun (b) memasukkan elemen budaya Jepun dalam sukatan pelajaran (c) menyediakan platform untuk pelajar berkongsi pandangan dan pengalaman mereka dengan orang lain (d) menyediakan suasana pembelajaran yang selesa, dan (e) menggunakan bahan autentik dalam kelas.
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THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON MALAYSIAN UNDERGRADUATE STUDYING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to shed light on learners’ psychological variables that influence the undergraduate students learning Japanese as a foreign language in Malaysia. Mixed method design was employed to investigate the issue of learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies. The first, quantitative phase of the study collected data from 459 students from seven public tertiary institutions using four 5- Likert type scales via online survey. The second, qualitative phase collected data from 24 learners from five public tertiary institutions via semi-structured interviews. Descriptive statistics revealed that Malaysian Japanese language learners have broad and strong reason to learn Japanese, possess high motivation and experience high level of anxiety and have moderate usage of anxiety coping strategies. Results from both data revealed that the learners displayed five types of learning orientation (communication, interest in language and culture, future career, external influences, and grade requirement), three types of motivation (attitude towards Japanese language, desire towards Japanese language, and effort) three types of anxiety (coping anxiety, performance anxiety, and low self-esteem) and six types of anxiety coping strategies (risk taking, help seeking, positive thinking, relaxation, preparation and resignation). Results also suggested that learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies were correlated.
Further examination on the differences among the participants based on the socio demographics variables, namely gender, Bumiputera status, academic major and prior foreign language experience, revealed that there were differences among the group.
For the gender variable, female learners are experiencing higher levels of FLA than
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male learners. Bumiputera group has stronger reasons to take Japanese language class, has higher level of motivation and FLA and use more ACS in dealing with anxiety experiences. Learners with prior Japanese language experience, possess stronger motivation, lesser anxiety and stronger reason to sign up for Japanese language classes.
However, academic major has no statistical significant effect on all variables measured.
These findings reiterate the importance of qualitative data, particularly when examining psychological variables that relates to language learners. Suggestion on how to maintain learners’ motivation and to lessen their anxious feelings were also provided: (a) to provide a platform for learners to communicate with Japanese native speakers (b) to inculcate Japanese culture in the syllabus (c) to provide a platform for learners to share their views and experiences with others (d) to provide friendly teaching and learning environment, and (e) to utilize authentic material in the classroom.
1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Learning a foreign language (FL) other than English is not a unique phenomenon in today’s globalized world. In Malaysia, more institutes of higher education have started offering language courses which cater to the current needs of the global community. FL courses including Asian languages such as Mandarin, Japanese, Thai and Korean and also European languages such as French, Italian and German are offered to enable graduates to have a more competitive edge over their peers. In certain higher educational institutions such as Universiti Utara Malaysia, Mandarin is compulsory for students doing marketing and accounting (The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, 2010) while in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, students from Political Science and International Business programs are required to complete a set of FL requirements in order to graduate (Ainol Madziah Zubairi & Isarji Sarudin, 2009). The working knowledge of a FL will allow graduates to get access to the latest information and technology and at the same time put them in a good position in multicultural and diverse work environment, locally and internationally.
It has been clearly stated in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020 (The Ministry of Higher Education, 2007) that “Proficiency in the third language is vital for developing human capital that drives the k-economy as well as gears the country towards competitive innovation in the international arena,” (p. 62) and “Institute of Higher Education have a critical role to play in providing the platform for improving the competitiveness of the nation globally via the delivery of education
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and training which are of high quality, effective, relevant and with commitment towards life-long learning,” (p. 15). Furthermore, The Ministry of Education Malaysia (2015) highlighted language skills and knowledge as two out of six key attributes needed in preparing graduates with relevant and appropriate knowledge, morals, mind- sets and behaviours to ensure their ability to move forward in a complex and evolving world and contribute to the development of the nation locally and globally. Being proficient in Malay and English, and is excited to learn additional global language is part of language skills and knowledge domain. These show the importance of FL and language skills in acquiring and transferring foreign technology for nation building in the borderless world. Malaysian higher learning institutions are encouraged “to provide learning opportunities for students to be proficient in a third language such as Mandarin, Tamil, Japanese, French or Spanish” (The Ministry of Higher Education, 2007, p. 66). For instance, the objectives of the establishment of Department of Foreign Language, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication of University Putra Malaysia are as follows:
1. Inculcate the culture of knowledge based on language, literature, communication and new technologies in order to enter the new era.
2. To fulfill the manpower needs who acquired the culture of knowledge and to foster integration at global level.
3. To develop dynamic individuals with language and communication competencies needed in the global job market.
4. To produce generations who are able to acquire, master and apply knowledge in the domain of foreign languages, linguistics, literature and culture.
(UPM, 2016)
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However, learning a FL in the environment of one's native language (L1) where the learning is usually limited within the classroom setting or at most some communication with the native speakers of the target language (Gass & Selinker, 2008) who are residing or travelling in Malaysia means the learners probably will not be stimulated by their environment. The learning environment has been identified as one of the variables that affects the acquisition of a second language (L2)/FL (Freed, 1991). Moreover, learning a FL also involves learning the target language’s culture, tradition, manners and customs. In the process of learning, the learner may likely undergo a culture-shock especially when the target language is too different from the learners’ L1 and this may greatly affect the learning outcome (Matsumoto & Obana, 2001).
In view of the increasing expectations for graduates to be knowledgeable, and proficient in FL, there is a need to conduct more research in this area particularly concerning Malaysian students learning a FL at higher learning institutions (Ainol Madziah Zubairi & Isarji Sarudin, 2009; The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, 2010) to enhance curriculum development and teaching practice for more effective teaching and learning in a more conducive environment so that the learners will be more interested, learn better and subsequently increase their proficiency.
Japanese Language Education in Malaysia
Japanese language is one of the most popular FL among Malaysian undergraduates (Hazlina Abdul Halim, Roslina Mamat, & Normaliza Abdul Rahim, 2012; Hieda & Maserah Shabudin, 2012; 2014) and is offered in schools and higher learning instutions. Japanese language education in Malaysia can be divided into four major time phases (Watanabe, 2008). The first phase is from 1941-1945, during the
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Japanese army occupation of Malaya during the Second World War. During this phase, the Japanese language was taught as the main language. The second phase refers from the time of the Japanese army's departure from Malaya due to their defeat in the Second World War until the 1960s. During this time frame, the expansion of Japanese language halted for a while. The third phase started in the mid-60s until 1981. During the third phase, the Japanese language was then taught in local universities with University Malaya being the first to offer the language in 1966. The fourth phase started in 1982 after the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad launched the ‘Look East’ policy and it continues until the present day.
In Malaysian higher education institution, Japanese language programmes offered can be divided into three major categories. The first category is the degree programmes in Japanese studies; for example, the Bachelor of Languages and Linguistics specializing in Japanese offered by University Malaya. The second category is the preparatory programmes which aim to equip students with Japanese language skills in order to enable them to pursue their studies in Japan. The Special Japanese Language Preparatory Programme offered by University Malaya (The Japan Foundation, 2016) is example of such programmes. The third is the Japanese proficiency courses offered by tertiary institutions as minor, elective or compulsory elective subject to equip students with the necessary language skills for social, academic and work related purposes such as the courses offered at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Multimedia University and others (The Japan Foundation, 2016).
Japanese proficiency classes are also conducted in Malaysian schools. It started in 1984 in six residential secondary schools where the language was taught as a second FL and it was then expanded to regular schools in 2005 (The Japan
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Foundation, 2016). In 2014 (The Japan Foundation, 2016) there are 56 residential schools and 77 regular schools offering Japanese language courses.
A survey by the Japan Foundation (2013) indicates that there are about 196 academic and non-academic institutions in Malaysia offering Japanese language courses to 33,077 (0.8% of the world Japanese language learner population) students and this figure places Malaysia at the 9th position in the list of countries with the most number of students learning the Japanese language in the world. This shows an increase of 44.7 % in the number of learners compared to the 2008 survey, which is 22,920 learners (Japan Foundation, 2008). Of these 33,077 learners, 17,034 (51.5%) are from higher learning institution, 12,682 (38.3%) from secondary schools, 3341 (10.1%) from non-academic private institution, and 20 (0. 1%) from primary school.
In addition, Malaysia was ranked number 10 in the list of Japanese language learners at school level (The Japan Foundation, 2008).
Table 1.1
Japanese Language Education in Malaysia (The Japan Foundation, 2013)
Year World Rank No of
Learners
No of Institutions
No of Teachers
2012 9
33,077 (44.7% up)
196 (58.1% up)
509 (31.2% up)
2009 11 22,856 124 388
Although Malaysia ranks number nine in the list of most number of learners learning Japanese language in the world (The Japan Foundation, 2013), empirical studies on students learning the language is rather scarce in the country.
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Japanese Language Education in the World
Japanese language education is offered in 136 countries with 3,985,669 learners, 16,046 institutions and 63,805 teachers (The Japan Foundation, 2013).
However, the actual number of learners of Japanese is higher than the given figures if it is inclusive of learners who are studying Japanese on their own using audio visual materials such as books or magazines, radio and television, online on the Internet, or even other learning avenues such as lessons or courses aimed to promote international goodwill or intercultural exchange where Japanese is not taught as a language.
The Japan Foundation (2013) has conducted 10 surveys related to Japanese language education overseas between 1979 and 2012. During the last 33 years time, the number of institution offering Japanese language education has increased 14 fold, from 1,145 to 16,046 institutions, while the number of teachers increased 15.6 times, from 4,097 to 63,805 and the number of learners increased 31.3 times from 127,167 to 3,985,669 learners. China, Indonesia and Korea are the three countries with most number of learners, and the total is 70% of the overall worldwide Japanese language learner population.
Problem Statement
Since the 1970s, the focus of research in second language (L2) and FL acquisition has shifted from instructor-centred to learner-centred. In other words, interest has moved from the teaching methods to learner characteristics and the learning processes by which the learner acquires knowledge and how the learner uses, receives, constructs or de-constructs knowledge. Both learners’ cognitive and affective domain is recognized as playing an important role in their language learning process.
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There are many factors involved in determining the outcome of the learning process. Among the most frequently researched and discussed psychological elements in the literature in learning FL are variables such as FL anxiety (FLA) and motivation.
These two variables have been shown to be the most consistent predictors of FL learning success (Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003).
A number of research have investigated the effects of anxiety on language education (e.g. Dewaele, 2013; Dörnyei, 2005; Gregersen, MacIntyre, & Meza, 2014;
Horwitz et al., 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989; Pyun, Kim, Cho, & Lee, 2014;
Tallon, 2009; Trang, Baldauf, & Moni, 2013; Young, 1991). Their findings proved that some form of anxiety exists that inhibit learning of language especially a FL.
Horwitz, Tallon, and Luo (2010) suggested approximately one third of FL learners experience mild or severe anxiety. Learners experiencing anxiety may employ avoidance strategies such as skipping classes, never volunteer to answers, or sit at the back of the classroom to minimize the humiliation or embarrassment of being called upon to speak (Fukai, 2000; Gregersen, 2003; Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986). The effects of the anxiety also extend outside the FL classroom, causing learners to be quieter and less willing to communicate (Liu & Jackson, 2008). They also may not use the language again after completing the class as a result of high levels of FLA (Dewaele, 2007). Ellis (1994) indicates that anxiety is one of the main reasons for learners’ reticence whereas Arnold and Brown (1999) concluded anxiety as the affective factor that most pervasively hinders the learning processes. This is a loss not only for the learners but also to the whole system that has invested time, energy and money in offering a FL that is not put into actual use (Dewaele, 2007).
It is also believed that anxiety could motivate language learning (Scovel, 1978; Spielmann & Radnofsky, 2001). Spielmann and Radnofsky (2001) who
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examined learner anxiety from an ethnographic perspective found that learners were experiencing a separate personality or ‘mask’ in the target language and this caused tension in them. However, the effect of this tension is either facilitating or debilitating in learners depends on how they processed the personality-altering nature of the language learning experience in a given situation. There is no clear theoretical understanding of the situation in which certain levels of FLA can be helpful and facilitating (Oxford, 1999).
Due to the debilitating effects that anxiety could have on language learning, extensive studies have given suggestions on how the FL instructors could create supportive and caring climate in the classroom through understanding about FLA as well as providing assistance to the learners in order to cope with FLA in the classroom setting. In contrast, few studies have attempted to examine how the learners cope with their FLA (Kao & Craigie, 2013; Kondo & Yang, 2004, 2006).
If FLA is considered as an obstacle in FL learning, motivation on the other hand plays a major role in determining success in language learning (e.g. Campbell &
Storch, 2011; Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei, Csizér, & Nemeth, 2006; Ellis, 1994;
Gardner, 1985, 2001; Nyikos & Oxford, 1993). Motivation is also a significant contributor to predictions of attrition in both beginning and intermediate FL classes (Saito & Samimy, 1997).
Learners who started with high levels of motivation tended to be more successful in the FL classes and successful learners tended to maintain high level of motivation throughout the courses compared to learner with lower motivation (Gardner, 2009). Motivated learners are willing to work hard on a task, and will persevere when they are challenged. Studies associated with language learning
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strategies show learners with higher motivation level possess a richer repertoire of strategies and employ strategies more frequently than less motivated language learners.
However, the literature on the influence of motivation on ACS use is dearth.
Based on the results of correlational and factor analytic studies, Gardner and MacIntyre, (1993b) suggested a reciprocal relationship exists between FLA and motivation where high levels of motivation will lessen anxiety, and high levels of anxiety will impede motivation, which in turn affects the progress of FL learning.
Some researchers (e.g. Jackson, 2002; Kitano, 2001) however, disagree and proposed a potential positive relationship based on cases of strongly motivated language learners have higher levels of anxiety. These inconclusive findings warrants the researcher to give more attention towards these variables because it would be beneficial to determine how these variables relate to, or differ from one another and how they operate together to affect language learning outcomes (Dorynei & Skehan, 2003; Koul, Roy, Kaewkuekool, & Ploisawaschai, 2009; Liu & Huang, 2011; Samimy, 1994).
Orientation is another concept that Gardner (1985) proposed in the discussion of motivation. Motivation refers to the directed, reinforcing effort individual learners make to learn the language (Gardner, 1985), whereas orientation is a class of reasons for studying a L2/FL (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994). A plethora of studies claim their research are on motivation by correlating learners’ reasons for studying a L2 with measures of achievement or often by clustering reasons in various way using factor analytic means. Gardner (2009) opines such studies are useful in identifying group of reasons which might reflect the cultural and contextual factor. On the other hand, Gardner (2009) claims, these studies probably not studying motivation because without association with the other features of motivated individual, a reason remains a reason. Therefore, knowing the learners' learning orientations and their motivation
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will help the educators to customize the syllabus, teaching and learning material and activities to suit their need (Dörnyei, 2001).
A plethora of studies has documented the examined variables in a various academic setting. However, most of these researches have been focused on learners of English as a second language (ESL) or English as a FL (EFL) (e.g., Dornyei et al., 2006; Gregerson & Horwitz, 2002; Kim, 2009; Kimura, 2008; Kondo & Yang, 2004;
Lucas, Miraflores, & Go, 2011; Matsuda & Gobel, 2004; Pae, 2008; Pappamihiel, 2002; Park & French, 2013; Piniel & Csizér, 2015; Shao, Yu, & Ji, 2013; Tóth, 2011;
Wei, 2012) or learners of European languages (e.g., Arnaiz & Guillén, 2012; Busse &
Walter, 2013; Frantzen & Magnan, 2005; Gregersen, 2005; Gregersen et al., 2014;
MacIntyre & Blackie, 2012; Marcos Llinás & Garau, 2009; Noels, 2001), and relatively little investigation has been done on language with unfamiliar writing and phonological systems, as well as the foreign cultural context such as Asian languages (e.g., Elkhafaifi, 2005; Grainger, 2010; Pyun, Kim, Cho, & Lee, 2014). The few studies examining these variables within the Asian languages context targeted learners of Arabic (Alghothani, 2010; Elkhafaifi, 2005), Chinese (Zhao, Guo, & Dynia, 2013 ), Korean (Min, 2014; Pyun et al., 2014) and Japanese (e.g., Aida, 1994; Hayashi, 2009;
Kitano, 2001; Saito & Samimy, 1996; Samimy & Tabuse, 1992).
Furthermore, most of the studies in JFL learners were done in the English- speaking countries such as in the United States (e.g. Aida, 1994; Dosaka, 2004; Fukai, 2000; Hayashi, 2009; Kitano, 2001; Machida, 2010; Saito & Samimy, 1996), and Australia (e.g. Hayes, 2009; Imura, 2004; Machida, 2001). A few was done in Asian countries such as Vietnam (Nishitani & Matsuda, 2003; 2006; 2008) and Taiwan (Paul
& Chen, 2012; Tsai & Tsai, 2013). So far, there are three research on FLA done on Malaysia JFL learners (Rokiah Paee, 2010; Rokiah Paee & Jecky, 2012; Wan Zarina,
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Azizah, Norfazila, & Nur Al-Huda, 2007). As for studies on JFL learners' learning orientation, there are quite a number for Malaysia context (Hieda & Maserah Shabudin, 2012; 2014; Muhammad Alif Redzuan, 2005; Rokiah Paee, 2009; Rokiah Paee &
Soubakeavathi, 2010) but studies carried out on their strength of motivation or how their learning orientation affects their strength of motivation are scarce.
Studies targeting English-speaking students of Japanese found that it take the learners three times (Walton, 1993) or at least four times (Everson, 2011) as long to acquire the same level of proficiency as European languages do. Students’ difficulties in learning Japanese is also being linked to a high attrition rate in Japanese language programs at Australian universities (Kato, 2002).
Realizing the importance of producing graduates who are competent in FL in order to compete globally, it is necessary for institutions of higher learning to encourage their students to be interested and persistent to learn FL as motivation and FLA has been found to influence success, rate of attrition, interest and enrolment rate (Dörnyei, 1994; Skehan, 1991). Therefore, efforts in enhancing the motivation and alleviating FLA during the teaching and learning session should continue so that FL ability is realized as an asset to graduates of Malaysian institutions of higher learning for their future career (Ainol Madziah Zubairi & Isarji Sarudin, 2009). Regardless of the importance of these variables, studies on FLA, ACS, learning orientation and motivation simultaneously especially in a FL context where learners normally have little access and exposure to the target language seem to be relatively scant so far.
12 Research Objectives
This study aims to explore the learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies in Japanese as foreign language learners learning beginning Japanese at Malaysian public higher learning institutions.
The objectives of the study are as follows.
To examine:
(1) The level of learners’ language learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies
(2) The type and rank of learners’ language learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies
(3) The relationship among language learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies
(4) The differences in learners’ language learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety, and anxiety coping strategies based on demographic variables such as gender, academic major, Bumiputera (Native) status and previous foreign language learning experience
(5) The learners' perspectives on learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies
Research Questions
This study attempts to answer the following research questions.
(1) What is the level of learners’ learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies?
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(2) What is the type and rank of learners’ learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies?
(3) What is the relationship among learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies?
(4) Is there any significant difference in learners’ learning orientations, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies based on demographic variables such as gender, academic major, Bumiputera (Native) status and previous foreign language learning experience?
(5) What are the Japanese as a foreign language learners' perspective on learning orientation, motivation, foreign language anxiety and anxiety coping strategies?
Significance of the Study
Given the increase number of learners learning Japanese each year, more research in exploring the learners’ affective needs in a classroom setting is needed.
This study which attempts to examine learning orientation, motivation, FLA, and ACS in Malaysian learners learning beginning Japanese at Malaysian public higher institutions has methodological and pedagogical significance which informs theory, as it will generate valuable insights into learners’ differing needs.
Methodologically, the current study is one of the few studies that attempt to explore the influence of psychological factors on beginning Japanese language learners using a convergent parallel mixed methods approach. Most of previous studies have examined these issues quantitatively (e.g., Guo, 2004; Hayashi, 2009; Hieda &
Maserah Shabudin, 2012; Rokiah Paee, 2009; Rokiah Paee & Soubakeavathi, 2010), and FLA (e.g., Aida, 1994; Kitano, 2001; Machida, 2001: Machida, 2010; Nishitani
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& Matsuda, 2003; 2006; 2008; Saito & Samimy, 1996: Wan Zarina et. al, 2007) and only a few studies approached it qualitatively (e.g. Dosaka, 2004; Fukai, 2000). The quantitative inquiry and qualitative inquiry offer different perspectives. Quantitative data provides statistics that make generalizations of the patterns of the examined variables, while qualitative data provides more detailed information about learners’
perceptions of the psychological factors that influence their Japanese language learning.
The data that will be gathered in this study go beyond just numbers, therefore providing practical information that will allow educators to improve pedagogy to better meet the affective needs of Malaysian JFL learners so that they can be more successful and proficient. It is expected that new insights emerging as a result from this study would contribute to the body of knowledge already existing in the field of FL learning and to have pedagogic implications for FL instruction particularly for Japanese language learners in Malaysian context.
Limitation
The current study has explored the relationships among learners’ psychological factors using mixed methods approach to provide a deeper understanding on the psychological factors that influence the learning of Japanese language. However, despite of its careful design, like all other studies, this study also has its own limitations.
This study employed online survey questionnaire and semi-structured interview to answer the research questions related to learning orientation, motivation, FLA and ACS which were based on self- report. Although efforts were taken to increase the validity and reliability of the study from both methodological approaches,
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self-report data are prone to weakness due to participants’ inaccurate recall or the unwillingness to provide accurate information.
The participants of this study comprised of 459 learners who is undertaking beginning Japanese language class as an elective or elective compulsory subject.
However, these participants were distributed among seven public tertiary institutions, with different instructors, teaching methods, teaching experiences, grading scales and textbook used. These variations could possible affect the results of the present study less applicable to Japanese language learners as a class. Moreover, in the current study, all of the examined variables: learning orientation, motivation, FLA and ACS were conceptualized as a one-shot phenomenon. Therefore, it only investigates a population at a certain point of time for representativeness and generalization.
These findings must be judged in the light of the aforementioned study’s limitations. Therefore, caution must be made when attempting to generalize the results to a different population either in Malaysia itself or other parts of the world. While there was no evidence of participants’ responses being affected by the usage of English for the online questionnaire, there is the possibility that the use of English may have influenced the results of the quantitative data to some degree and this can be considered as another limitation of the study.
Operational Definitions of Terms
This section introduces the operational definitions of the key terms used in this study.
16 1.9.1 Foreign Language
In L2 acquisition studies, the terms FL and L2 learning, are not clearly distinguished (Ellis, 1994). Therefore, FL acquisition is often considered to be a subcategory of L2 acquisition. In contrast, Gass and Selinker (2008) distinguish these two terms, asserting that a FL learning is usually limited within the classroom context or at most some communication with the native speakers of the target language, while a L2 is a functional tools in the communities.
In this study, FL learning is different from L2 learning. FL is operationalized as a language that is taught in classroom context in one native language environment where the opportunity to use the language is very limited. However, unless otherwise stated, the terms “L2” is used generically and cover the learning of a language other than the native tongue.
1.9.2 Learning Orientation
Learning Orientation refers to the main objective of language learning and is viewed as the reasons for learning a L2/FL. It “represent ultimate goals for achieving the more immediate goal of learning the second language” (Gardner, 1985, p.11).
However, learning orientation on its own is only a goal that may lack motive power (Gardner, 1985). Dörnyei, Zana, and Muir (2015) posited that “a powerful motivational drive cannot happen without a well-defined goal, target or outcome that can provide cohesion for one’s efforts and help focus energy on final goal achievement”
(p. 99).
In this study, learning orientation refers to the cluster of reasons of why the learners learn an L2/FL.
17 1.9.3 Motivation
Motivation is “the primary impetus to initiate FL learning and later the driving force to sustain language and often tedious learning process” (Dörnyei, 2005: p.65).
Gardner defined L2 learning motivation as “the extent to which an individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity” (Gardner, 1985: p.10). It is the amount of effort invested into, and general persistence towards language learning (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011;
Gardner, 2010).
In this study, motivation refers to the combination of the strength of motivation, the strength of desire and the degree of positive attitude towards learning a FL.
1.9.4 Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)
FLA is “a distinctive complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). It refers to the worried feelings and negative emotional reaction such as the dread or uneasiness feelings that appears in a learner when attempting to use a L2/ FL (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993a;
Young, 1991). According to Horwitz et al. (1986), FLA is the threat to an individual's self-concept caused by the inherent limitations of communicating in an imperfectly mastered L2/FL.
In this study, FLA is operationalized as the feeling of worry, tense, overwhelmed and uneasiness that occurred during the FL learning in the classroom context.
18 1.9.5 Anxiety Coping Strategies (ACS)
Coping strategies refers to the strategies taken to eliminate or modify the conditions that produce stress or by keeping the emotional consequences within manageable bounds (Zeidner & Hammer, 1990). On the other hand, FL classroom anxiety coping strategies are the countermeasures the learners use to reduce or alleviate the anxiety arise during the process of language learning (Kondo & Yang, 2004).
In this study, ACS is defined as strategy the learners employ to avoid being anxious or to alleviate their level of anxiety during the process of language learning in the classroom context.
Overview
Chapter One is an introduction that describes the context and the objective of the study. Chapter Two provides a literature review on definition, theories and previous studies related to this study. Chapter Three delineates the research methods by describing research design, research instruments, and their psychometric properties, research procedure and data analysis in comparable research contexts. The findings of the pilot study is also included. Chapter Four presents the finding. Chapter Five follows with discussion of the results, its’ pedagogical implication, conclusion of the study and offers possible directions for future study.
19 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter begins with the definition and the concept of the variables used in this study. Then it moves to illustrate Gardner’s Socio- Educational Model, Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory and Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s theory on foreign language anxiety. The last section will present the previous studies related to the variables examined in this study.
Definition and Conceptions
2.2.1 Orientation
Orientation is a terminology coined by Gardner and Lambert in 1959 when they introduced a measuring instrument, the measuring index. The learners were given four choice of reason why they were learning French and they were classified as integratively or instrumentally oriented based on the reasons they ranked as most important to them personally (Gardner, 1985). The scale contrasted the integrative and instrumental orientations and this has consequently led many researchers to consider orientation in terms of this dichotomy (Gardner, 1985) and become a line of research of its own.
Orientation is a concept explaining why a learner has a goal in learning.
According to Gardner (1985), motivation is a combination of four factors: a goal, effortful behaviour, a desire to attain the goal, and favourable attitudes toward the
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activity. A goal is a stimulus which gives rise to motivation, and is reflected in the individual’s orientation to learn a L2/FL. It refers to the main objective of language learning and is viewed as the reasons for learning a L2. Orientation on its own is only a goal that may lack motive power (Gardner, 1985). Dörnyei, Zana, and Muir (2015) posited that “a powerful motivational drive cannot happen without a well-defined goal, target or outcome that can provide cohesion for one’s efforts and help focus energy on final goal achievement” (p. 99).
Gardner (1985) suggests that language learners’ orientation can be categorized into two broad categories: (a) integrative orientation and (b) instrumental orientation.
An integrative orientation refers to cluster of reasons that suggesting an individual is learning a L2 due to positive attitude towards the target language group such as having desire or intention to communicate and to take on the characteristics of the target language’s culture or language (Gardner, 2005). Gardner and Lambert (1972) suggested that individual with an integrative orientation would demonstrate greater motivational effect in learning L2, and, thus, achieve greater L2 competence.
Integrative orientation can be contrasted with an instrumental orientation. Instrumental orientation reflects a desire to learn a L2 for utilitarian or practical purposes of learning such as future career perspectives, passing an exam, seeking financial benefits and the like. Instrumentally oriented learners view language learning as having beneficial career prospects or something that will enable them to use transactional language with speakers of the FL.
In the same line, Deci and Ryan categorized orientation into two broad categories: (a) Intrinsic motivation (b) Extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to "motivation to engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and satisfying to do” (Noels et al., 2003, p. 38), whereas extrinsic motivation is "actions carried out
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to achieve some instrumental end, such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment”
(p. 39).
Orientations do not necessarily reflect motivation (Masgoret & Gardner, 2003).
Integratively oriented individuals may not necessarily be highly motivated than individuals with instrumental orientations, and may not be strongly motivated to learn the L2, or vice versa. Thus regardless of the learners’ orientation to learn a L2, it does not directly affect the success in language learning because it is the motivated behaviour that lead to success (Masgoret & Gardner, 2003).
2.2.2 Motivation
Motivation is a multifaceted construct and it has been defined differently by many researchers who have approached the subject from various disciplines (Dörnyei, 2005). Motivation research addresses the issues of why human thinks and behave as they do. Generally motivation concerns the direction and magnitude of human behaviour or more particularly, “motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in this respect” (Keller, 1983, p. 389). It is the force that gives behaviour its energy and direction (Reeve, 2009) or the desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)
2.2.3 Motivation in Learning L2/FL
The concept of L2/FL learning motivation is complex and has been studied for more than fifty years (Dörnyei, 2005; Dornyei, Maclntyre, & Henry, 2015; Macintyre, Noels, & Moore, 2010, Gardner, 2010) from various perspectives using a number of
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different methodologies. L2 motivation research was initiated by social psychologists Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert in Canada. During the years, the study of L2 motivation has developed into an independent and self-contained field and able to stand on its own without reference to trends and developments in the mainstream psychology (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).
In L2 learning, motivation is “the primary impetus to initiate L2 learning and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 65). It is “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favourable attitudes toward learning the language “(Gardner, 1985:
p. 10). Ortega (2009) defines it as the desire to initiate L2 leaning and the effort employed to sustain it. Motivation determines the extent of active, personal involvement in L2 learning (Oxford & Shearin, 1994). With little or no motivation, even individuals with the most exceptional potentials would not be able to achieve long term goals, and neither are appropriate curricula and good teaching enough on their own to ensure student achievement (Dörnyei, 2005).
Motivation has cognitive, affective and conative characteristics and the motivated individual shows all facets (Gardner, 2005). Motivated individuals are goal- directed, persistent, have a strong desire, give effort and enjoying the tasks necessary to attain the goals. When motivated individuals achieved some degree of success they will demonstrate self-efficacy, confident at their achievements (Gardner, 2005).
Motivated individuals have reasons for their behaviour, and these reasons are often called motives (Gardner, 2001). Learners with high levels of motivational intensity, desire, and favorable attitudes toward the L2 are more likely to continue L2 learning compared to those who has lower motivational levels (Gardner, 1985; Kissau, Kolano,
& Wang, 2010).
23 2.2.4 Anxiety
Anxiety is an emotion related to the uncomfortable internal state usually associated with uncertainty or the unknown (Stein & Walker, 2002). It is a normal response to situations that are stressful or involve uncertain threat. Spielberger (1983) defined anxiety as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system” (p.1) usually about a situation with uncertain outcomes (Spielberger, 1983) whereas Scovel (1978) defined it as “apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly associated with an object” (p. 134). Anxiety is associated with the terms such as nervous, inferior, stressed and, even terror to explain one’s feelings relates to nervousness, anxiety, confusion and frustration (Waninge, 2015).
Anxiety has been researched from three perspectives: (a) trait anxiety (b) state anxiety, and (c) situation specific anxiety (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991). Trait anxiety, refers to “relatively stable individual differences in anxiety-proneness, that is, to differences between people in the tendency to perceive stressful situations as dangerous or threatening and to respond to such situations with elevations in the intensity of their state anxiety reactions” (Spielberger, 1983: p. 1). It is a general personality trait that can be considered as one of the main traits of human personality (Dörnyei, 2005). Individual with high level of trait anxiety tend to feel anxious regardless of the situations they are exposed to (Pappamihiel, 2002) and may experiencing impaired cognitive functioning, memory disruption, avoidance behaviour, and other negative effects (Eysenck 1979, in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991).
On the other hand, state anxiety is “moment-to-moment experience of anxiety”
(MacIntyre, 1999: p. 28). In other word, state anxiety is a temporary emotional state of subjective, conscious feelings of apprehension and tension accompanied by
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heightened autonomic nervous system (Spielberger, 1983) and it occurs because learners are exposed to particular conditions or situations such as when the individuals are requested to speak in front of the class or if they do not understand the words the teachers used during the class (Pappamihiel, 2002).
The third one, situation specific anxiety is “the specific forms of anxiety that occur consistently over time within the given situation” (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991) and it can be considered as anxieties experienced in certain situation. Different situations cause different level of anxiety in individuals such as test anxiety that occur during the test or math anxiety when solving mathematic problems or language anxiety when speaking a L2 (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). Situation-specific anxiety is trait anxiety applied to a particular context (MacIntyre, 1999).
Although studies reveal that anxiety may result in adverse effects on language learning, it is also believed that anxiety could motivate language learning. Alpert and Haber (1960, cited in Scovel, 1978) distinguish harmful and helpful anxiety as facilitative and debilitative anxiety. Facilitative anxiety is seen as a drive to improve performance. Debilitative anxiety, on the contrary, hinders a learner’s achievement.
2.2.5 Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)
FLA is “a distinctive complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). It is the dread or uneasiness feelings that appears in a learner when attempting to use a FL (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993a). Defined as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with second language contexts, including speaking, listening, and learning”
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(MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994, p. 284), anxiety has been identified as an important factor in FL learning (Young 1991). FLA is a learned response to the learning conditions and occurred when the conditions for learning were less favourable, or when their FL learning got beyond their control and they could not adapt to changes when they continued to learn (Trang et al., 2013). Many students who have experienced learning a FL have expressed how stressful it was to be in the classroom as it provoked anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986).
The study of anxiety in language learning has been done via two approaches:
(a) the anxiety transfer, and (b) the unique anxiety approach (Horwitz & Young, 1991;
MacIntyre, 1999). The anxiety transfer approach assumes anxiety experienced in an L2 context is simply the transfer of other forms of anxiety into the L2 domain.
Individuals who are generally anxious in particular situations are assumed to also experience anxiety when learning or using a FL. The unique anxiety approach, on the other hand, assumes language learning produces a unique type of anxiety. This approach is based on Gardner’s hypothesis, “a construct of anxiety which is not general but instead is specific to the language acquisition context is related to second language achievement” (Gardner, 1985, p. 34), According to this concept, anxiety experienced in L2 contexts is viewed as a situation-specific anxiety aroused by the experience of learning and using an L2 (Tóth, 2010).
Between these two approaches, studies applying the “unique anxiety” approach which used measures of anxiety specific to the L2 context, turned out to produce more consistent findings regarding L2 anxiety and achievement in which anxiety has been found as having inverse relationship with various measures of L2 performance. In contrast, studies adopting the “anxiety transfer” approach failed to produce conclusive findings not only across but even within studies (MacIntyre, 1999). For example,
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Chastain (1975, cited in Scovel, 1978) finds positive, negative, as well as non- significant correlations between anxiety and L2 achievement in French, German, and Spanish in the same study. Using facilitating-debilitating anxiety framework, Kleinmann (1977) found Spanish and Arabic learners of English have the tendency to avoid English structures consistent with contrastive analysis predictions. However, learners with more facilitating anxiety had a lower tendency toward this avoidance.
Thus, Kleinmann suggests affective factors play a role in L2 acquisition.
In explaining the varied conclusions reported by many researchers, Scovel (1978) and Horwitz et al. (1986) attributed them to the insufficient conceptualizations of the construct of anxiety made worse by the fact that there is a lack of valid and reliable anxiety measure specific to FL learning. Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) proposed FLA as a situation specific anxiety construct and conceptualize FLA as “a phenomenon related to but distinguishable from other specific anxieties” (p. 129).
Consequently, she and her colleagues developed an instrument called Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) to measure the level of learners’ anxiety.
Horwitz et al. (1986) then came up with the definition of language learning anxiety as an amalgamation of various incapacitating psychological as well as behavioural factors that go with language learning situations influenced by the unique process which is inherent in language learning. Based on this observation, three types of performance anxieties are proposed and labelled as communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. It is believed that these three anxieties form an integral part of FLA and together they conspire to inhibit learning as the learner attempts to learn and use a language.
27 2.2.6 Coping Strategies
Coping refers to the cognitive activity and behaviour taken to reduce the emotional reaction caused by emergency (Zeidner & Endler, 1996) whereas coping strategies refers to the strategies taken to eliminate or modify the conditions that produce stress or by keeping the emotional consequences within manageable bounds (Zeidner & Hammer, 1990). Generally, there are three major types of coping strategies: (a) problem-focused coping (b) emotion-focused coping, and (c) avoidance- oriented coping. Problem-focused coping is the approach to manage or solve the problem by removing or avoiding the stressor (e.g., studying hard, obtaining good summaries of lecture notes) while emotion-focused coping refers to approach that focus on regulating, reducing or eliminating the emotional stress related with the stressful situation such as seeking emotional support from friends, distancing oneself from the evaluative threat and the like. On the other hand avoidance-oriented coping approach is using either person-oriented strategies (e.g., avoidance or seeking of others) or task-oriented strategies (e.g., watching TV, engaging in irrelevant tasks) to avoid the stressful situation (Zeidner, 1998).
Individuals experiencing anxiety will attempt to alleviate their level of anxiety by applying problem focused approach or emotion focused or avoidance coping mechanisms (Lazarus, 1991). Problem-focused or active coping helps learners paying more attention to specific goals and allows them to view the situation as more controllable. Thus, active coping is positively related to academic success. In contrast, learners who apply avoidance-oriented coping tend to view the situation as less controllable and are less likely to achieve success (Ben-Zur, 2009; Park & Adler, 2003).
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2.2.7 Foreign Language Anxiety Coping Strategies
FL classroom anxiety coping strategies are the countermeasures the learners use to reduce or alleviate the level of anxiety that arise during the process of FL learning (Kondo & Yang, 2004). Most of previous studies on ACS have been focused on three approaches; (a) cognitive (b) affective, and (c) behavioural approach (Kondo
& Yang, 2004). Cognitive approach is from the cognitive aspect and this approach assumes the main sources of anxiety are from the thinking disturbances such as worry, preoccupations and concerns on what happen in the classroom. Cognitive restructuring and rational-emotive therapy are some of the intervention. Learners who think their anxieties are due to their cognition aspect may attempt to change or suppress their thoughts regarding the process of language learning. The second approach is from the affective aspect. Anxiety arises due to emotional arousal may be alleviated by systematic process of reducing sensitivity, relaxation training and biofeedback training.
Learners may alleviate bodily reaction and tension if they think this is the source of their anxiety. The third approach is the behavioural approach. The behavioural approach assumes anxiety occurs due to lack of academic skill and learners who thought the sources of their anxiety are from this, they will work harder. However, if the learners think the anxiety are too much, they may just attempt resignation and not working hard to cope with it.
Kondo and Yang (2004) defines FLA coping strategies as the countermeasures the learners use to reduce or alleviate the level of anxiety that arise during the process of FL learning. According to Kondo and Yang, FL ACS are being composed of five categories: (a) preparation (b) relaxation (c) positive thinking (d) peer seeking, and (e) resignation (Figure 2.1).
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Figure 2.1: Kondo and Yang’s (2004) Concept on Anxiety Coping Strategies
Preparation is the learners’ effort to overcome their feeling of anxiety or threat by improving their learning strategies. Preparation coping includes strategies of studying hard, stay focused during the class and trying to obtain good summaries. This strategy can be categorized under behavioural approach since it focuses on behavioural components of language learning that are related to effective performance in class.
Relaxation deals with ways to minimize the symptoms of anxiety which the aim is at reducing bodily tension related with emotional arousal, thus fall under affective approach. Relaxation coping strategies include taking a deep breath, trying to stay calm and trying to relax. Positive thinking refers to the efforts to “divert attention from stressful situation to positive and pleasant cues and bring relief to the anxious students”
(p. 262). Positive thinking coping strategies include comforting oneself by saying “Its ok to make mistakes” or “I am better than others” and trying to be confident. Peer seeking is the attempt to find other learners who are also experiencing anxiety in the language class. Peer seeking coping includes strategies such as talking with friends,
Anxiety Coping Strategies Preparation
Positive Thinking
Peer Seeking Relaxation
Resignation
