• Tiada Hasil Ditemukan

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLOCATION COMPETENCE AND WRITING SKILLS

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2022

Share "ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLOCATION COMPETENCE AND WRITING SKILLS "

Copied!
24
0
0

Tekspenuh

(1)

2

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLOCATION COMPETENCE AND WRITING SKILLS

OF DJIBOUTIAN EFL LEARNERS

BY

BILAN MOHAMED ABDI

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Masters in Human Sciences

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

January 2019

(2)

ii

ABSTRACT

Learning collocations enables EFL learners to position words in suitable context and use them appropriately. Language learners cannot use a word or understand it unless they are familiar with the immediate context in which the word is used. Furthermore, collocations are assumed to be an important factor in communicative competence. The current study aimed to investigate collocational knowledge of Djiboutian EFL learners.

The participants of the current study were 20 Djiboutian postgraduate students. The data collection for the present study was done using a multiple-choice test consisting of 60 items and an essay test. This study sought to investigate the correlation between lexical collocation knowledge and writing skills of the Djiboutian students with the purpose of exploring the effect that the knowledge of collocation has on writing production of the Djiboutian students. The results from this study reveal a positive correlation between the collocational knowledge and writing production of the students. The findings also indicate that Djiboutian EFL learners have difficulties with English lexical collocations.

Additionally, the findings of the study corroborate the need for EFL students to learn lexical collocations in order to develop writing skills. The outcomes of the study also provide useful implications for foreign language learners and teachers as well as curriculum designers and material developers.

(3)

iii

ثحبلا صخلم

ملعت نإ ةيظفللا تامزلاتلما

كيم ن يملعتم عضو نم EFL

ةملكلا في

قايس بسانم

اهمادختساو لكشب

بسانم . لاو اننكيم مادختسا

،ةملكلا وأ

اهمهف اذإ لم نكمتن ةياردلا

قايسلبا يروفلا

يذلا مدختست هيف

ةملكلا . انهأ امك الاماع لث تم

اامهم في ةءافكلا ةيلصاوتلا

.

فدتهو ةساردلا

ققحتلل يملعتم باعيتسا ىدم نم

ينيتوبيلجا EFL .

نوكراشلما امأو هذه في

مهف ةساردلا اابلاط 20

ايلعلا تاسردلا بلاط نم ينيتوبيلجا

تو . عجم تناايبلا ةقلعتلما

هذبه

ةساردلا مادختسبا

رابتخا ددعتم تارايلخا نوكتي

نم 60

،ةطقن ةباتكو

،ةلاقلما ةلباقلماو

هبش

ةمظنلما . هذه ىعستو ةساردلا

لىإ نيوكت ةقلاعلا ةلدابتلما ينب

ةفرعلما ةيوغللا ةراهمو ةباتكلا يدل

ةبلطلا ينيتوبيلجا ضرغب

فاشكتسا يرثأتلا

يذلا بتتري ىلع ةفرعلما بياتكلا جاتنلإاو ةيوغللا

ىدل ةبلطلا ينيتوبيلجا .

جئاتن تتبثأو هذه

ةساردلا دوجو

ةقلاع ةيبايجإ ينب ةفرعلما ةيعمالجا

جاتنلإاو بياتكلا

ةبلطلل . تراشأو جئاتنلا

لىإ نأ ينملعتلما ينيتوبيلجا EFL

نوهجاوي تباوعصلا

في ةيظفللا تامزلاتلما ةيزيلنجلإا

. ةفاضلإبا لىإ

،كلذ ترهظأ دقل جئاتنلا

نأ مدع ضرعتلا ناك

الاماع اايسيئر ءارو ءافكلا ة ةفيعضلا ينكراشلما ىدل

كأ امك . تد

ةساردلا ةجاح

EFL ةبلط

ملعت لىإ ةيظفللا تامزلاتلما

نم لجأ ريوطت ةراهم ةباتكلا . رفوتو جئاتن ةساردلا ااضيأ

ارثاآ ا

ةديفم تاغللا يسردمو يملعتلم ةيبنجلأا

كلذكو يممصلم

جهانلما يروطمو

داولما

.

(4)

v

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Applied Linguistics

……….

Adlina Hj Ariffin Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Applied Linguistics

.

………

Maimunah Abdi Kadir Internal Examiner

This thesis was submitted to the Department of IRKHS and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Applied Linguistics

……….

Siti Nuraishah Binti Ahmad Head, Department of English language and literature

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of IRKHS and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Applied Linguistics

………..

Shukran Abd. Rahman Dean, Kulliyyah of IRKHS

(5)

vi

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Bilan Mohamed Abdi

Signature ... Date ...

(6)

vii

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLOCATION COMPETENCE AND WRITING SKILLS

OF DJIBOUTIAN EFL LEARNERS

I declare that the copyright holders of this dissertation are jointly owned by the student and IIUM.

Copyright © 2018 Bilan Mohamed Abdi and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understood the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Bilan Mohamed Abdi…….……….

………..

Signature Date

(7)

viii

A

CKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Almighty ALLAH for giving me strength, perseverance and all the means to make this study a reality.

Moreover, the accomplishment of this thesis is made possible with the valuable support from many people who had direct and indirect contribution to this work.

To Dr ADLINA BINTI HJ ARIFFIN, my supervisor, who with her valuable guidance, suggestions and support made this thesis possible.

Words cannot express my gratitude to my parents, brothers and sisters for their encouragement and endless emotional support.

I would also take this chance to thank Dr Maskana, Dr Ainol, Br Haikal for their valuable explanations which helped me to clarify some obscure parts in this study.

Besides, I am heartily grateful to express my words of appreciation to my dear friends for their never-ending support and cheerful laughter. You girls made this journey fun and worthwhile.

Finally, I am indebted to the Djiboutian Ministry of Higher Education for offering me the

scholarship to pursue my Master study.

(8)

ix

Dedication

“Dedicated first to Almighty ALLAH then to my beloved parents & family for their endless love and support”

q

(9)

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ... ii

Abstract in Arabic ... iii

Approval Page ... iv

Declaration ... v

Copyright Page ... vi

Acknowledgements ... vii

Table Of Contents ... viii

List of Tables ... xi

List of Figures ... xii

List of Abbreviations ... xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.0. Background of The Study ... 1

1.1. Status of Collocations In Language Teaching ... 2

1.2. Problem Statement ... 4

1.3. Objectives of the Study ... 5

1.4. Research Questions ... 5

1.5. Significance of the Study ... 6

1.6. Limitations of the Research ... 7

1.7. Organisation of the Thesis ... 7

1.8. Summary ... 8

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 9

2.0. Vocabulary And Language Learning ... 9

2.1. Lexical Approach ... 11

2.2. What Is Collocation? ... 12

2.3. Classifications Of Collocations ... .14

2.3.1.Classification by Benson, Benson, & Ilson………...…14

2.3.2.Collocation Continuum……….…15

2.3.3.Classification by Hill (2000)……….…16

2.3.4.Classification of Collocation by Oxford Dictionary………..…17

2.3.5.Classification by McCarthy and O'Dell (2005)……….…18

2.4. The Classification Adopted For The Study ... 18

2.5. The Main Causes Of Collocation Errors ... 19

2.6. Writing Skills And Collocational Competence ... 20

2.7. Similar Studies ... 21

2.8. Conceptual Framework ... 26

2.9. Summary ... 28

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ... 30

3.0.Introduction ... 30

3.1.Setting And Participants Of The Study ... 31

3.2.Sampling Method ... 31

3.3.Instruments ... 32

3.3.1.Scoring Procedure for The Collocation Test ... 32

(10)

xi

3.3.2.Scoring Procedure for The Writing Test ... 33

3.4.Data Collection Procedure ... 34

3.4.1Pilot Study ... 34

3.4.2.Main Study ... 35

3.4.2.1. Collocation Test ... 36

3.4.2.2. Writing Test ... 37

3.4.2.3. Interview ... 37

3.5.Flowchart Of The Research Methodology ... 38

3.6.Data Analysis Procedure ... 38

3.7.Reliability Of The Collocation Test ... 39

3.8.Summary ... 39

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 41

4.0. Introduction... 41

4.1. Rq1 What Are The Types Of Lexical Collocation Patterns Used By The Djiboutian EFL Learners? ... 41

4.1.1.Findings ... 41

4.1.2.Discussion ... 42

4.2. Rq2: Which Lexical Collocation Types Are The Most And The Least Problematic To Djiboutian EFL Learners?... 43

4.2.1 Findings ... 44

4.2.2 Discussion ... 50

4.3. Rq3:Is There Any Relationship Between Djiboutian EFL Learners' L2 Writing Skills And Their Collocational Competence? ... 5 2 4.3.1. Findings ... 53

4.3.2. Discussion ... 53

4.4. RQ4: What Are The Basis For The Participants’ Difficulties With Lexical Collocations?54 4.4.1.Thematic Analysis of the Interview Data... 55

4.4.1.1 Perception of English ... 55

4.4.1.2 Exposure to English ... 56

4.4.1.3 Vocabulary learning strategy ... 57

4.4.1.4 Collocation awareness ... 58

4.5. Summary ... 60

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 61

5.0. Introduction... 60

5.1. Achievement Of Objectives ... 60

5.2. Recommendations... 62

5.3. Future Research ... 64

5.4. Summary ... 67

REFERENCES ... 68

APPENDIX 1 ... 74

APPENDIX 2 ... 80

(11)

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 Lexical & Grammatical Collocations by Benson, Benson, &

Ilson (1996)

15 2.2 Lexical Collocations Categorized by Hill (2000) 17 2.3 Classification of Collocation by Oxford Dictionary of Student of

English

18

2.4 Collocation Types Proposed by McCarthy and O'Dell (2005) 18

2.5 Causes of Collocation Errors 20

3.1 Procedure Used for the Research Questions 34

3.2 Number of items allocated for Each Type of Lexical Collocation 36 4.1 Distribution Percentage of Correct Answers from the Writing

Test

42 4.2 4.2 Correct Answers of LCT on Adjective + Noun Type 44 4.3 4.3 Correct Answers of LCT on Noun + Verb Type 45 4.4 4.4 Correct Answers of LCT on Verb+ Adverb Type 46

4.5 4.5 Correct Answers of LCT on Noun+ Noun Type 47

4.6 4.6 Correct Answers of LCT on Adverb+ Adjective Type 48

4.7 4.7 Correct Answers of LCT on Verb+ Noun Type 49

4.8 Distribution of Correct Answers Ranging from Most Difficult to Least Difficult

50

4.9 Correlation Results 53

(12)

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No

2.1 Collocation continuum 16

2.2 Conceptual framework 29

3.1 Research Design & Analysis Procedure 38

(13)

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL: English as a Foreign Language ESL: English as a Second Language G (1): Grammatical (collocation)

IELTS: International English Language Testing System L (1): Lexical (collocation)

LCT: Lexical Collocation Test

OALD: Oxford Advanced Learners' Dictionary SLA: Second Language Acquisition

(14)

1

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.0. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The understanding of what we read and write is, to a great extent determined by our vocabulary. It is undeniable that vocabulary lies at the heart of language acquisition as asserted by ample researchers such as Milton (2009) who considers vocabulary to be the building blocks of a language without which there is no language. In that sense, it is only vital for a language le arner to be equipped with a rich vocabulary repertoire which is a key element in the mastery of any given language. According to Wilkins (1972), ‘‘There is not much value in being able to produce grammatical sentences if one has not got the vocabulary that is needed to convey what one wishes to say … While without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’’ (p.111). This is the reason for which it is suggested that more attention should be given to the teaching of vocabulary as much as grammar in language classes Krashen & Biber, (1988). Nonetheless, in the process of language teaching and learning, vocabulary has occupied an insignificant position compared to grammar. McCarthy, O'Dell, & Shaw, (1997) assert that, “all through the 1970s and 1980s, vocabulary and lexis were not part of the syllabuses of language teaching” (p. 24). The backseat position of vocabulary was mainly due to the traditional language leaning theories which focused more on language form rather than language usage in real context. Owing to the neglect towards vocabulary teaching, less is known about vocabulary acquisition of foreign language learners (Meara, 1980). Hence, the improvement of language teaching is lagging behind because of the neglect towards vocabulary teaching. However, with the

(15)

2

insurgence of modern theories of language teaching, vocabulary and lexis have taken a frontline position. Therefore, many researchers have highlighted the importance of vocabulary instruction in language learning classes. Moreover, the field has seen a growth due to the empirical researches dedicated to it.

Within the field of vocabulary, researchers have highlighted the importance of word combinations, also known as chunks or formulaic language. These word sequences have been defined in diverse studies. While the definitions are varied, they overlap to some extent. Some of these chunks are predominantly put together to form a complex word altogether. However, some word combinations are created through a process called fusion where two or more words come together to form a formulaic language. These types of words are referred to as fixed expressions e.g. “all of a sudden”

and semi-fixed expressions e.g. “at work”. Collocations thus, are the semi-fixed expression and are less flexible than fixed expressions that are rather frozen.

In the field of English as a Foreign Language, the teaching of collocations is considered to be crucial as it allows speakers to have a more fluent and competent language production, (Hsu & Chiu, 2008). Previous research such as Alsakran (2011) and Dakhs (2015) looked into the use of collocations by EFL students. However, this kind of study has rarely been generated from the Djiboutian EFL learners’ context.

Hence, this study aims to look at how Djiboutian students use collocations. Djiboutian EFL learners may encounter problems in the acquisition and use of collocations as they have a habit of learning English vocabulary in isolation. This could be attributed to the fact that they come from a country where English is rarely used and exposure to the language is very limited. The current research aims to be a useful additional insight into the methods taken by Djiboutian English learners in using collocations.

(16)

3

1.1. STATUS OF COLLOCATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

Teaching collocations to EFL learners is proven by many researchers to be vital for the development of effective communication skills. Although, collocations are important, they are also a perplexing feature for ESL and EFL learners. Despite the ascertained difficulty of collocation, researchers have overemphasized its importance for second language acquisition. For that reason, learning and using collocations for EFL learner is not merely an option.

In recent times, language instructors and researchers in the field of language teaching have given their attention and utmost consideration to collocations in language teaching and learning approaches, particularly for EFL learners. However, as stated by Benson et al. (1987) collocations are unpredictable and challenging for non-native speakers. ESL and EFL learners are likely to pick up new vocabularies individually without giving importance to the collocational properties that each word may have.

They learn words individually but do not pay attention to the context in which the word may be used. This issue has raised the attention of teachers and researchers to emphasise on the importance of collocational instructions for language learner. As a result, Carter and McCarthy (1988) maintain that English collocations are crucial for the correct understanding and production of the English language. They also contend that collocations help learners to be aware of how words follow each other in a given context. Therefore, learners through collocational competence equip themselves with pre-packaged word chunks that could be used together. Furthermore, EFL learners often times misuse collocations and fail to come up with the proper order of words while producing collocations. This shows the importance of collocational knowledge which can be observed in the spoken and written language of the EFL learners. Likewise,

(17)

4

McCarthy (1990) claims that collocation is “an important organizing principle in the vocabulary of any language” (p.12).

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Multiple studies have delved into the field of collocational use and provided substantial accounts from various contexts. Shehata (2008), Alsakran (2011) and Talakoob &

Koosha (2017) are some of the researchers who have dealt with the use of collocations by EFL learners from different backgrounds. As collocations are very general concept which is difficult to master by ESL and EFL learners, understanding collocations is quite challenging for most of them. Thornbury (2002) explains that a slight alteration to collocation like replacing one of its elements for another synonymous word can change the whole text into a non-professional English language. This means that collocational expressions are restricted and the meaning of an individual word depends on that particular phrase. Therefore, substitution of one word within the expression can affect the meaning.

It is reported in various studies that EFL students’ level of collocational knowledge is in need of improvement (Shehata, 2008; Alsakran, 2011; Talakoob &

Koosha, 2017). Granger (1998) hypothesises that learners are more likely to use less collocations in their writing than their native speaking counterparts, given that the use of such language is universally presented as typically native-like. This phenomenon is not only due to limited exposure to the English language but also it is argued that collocation is one of the factors that mark “non-nativeness” in the writings of both ESL and EFL learners. Lack of collocational competence is observed even in advanced learners who sometimes fail to produce acceptable collocations as used by native speakers. Nakamura (2003) argues that although learners may find it difficult to acquire

(18)

5

collocational competence, there is huge importance in teaching collocations to EFL learners’ collocations due to the following reasons:

(1) Learners develop the habit of paying attention to chunks, rather than just individual words, when listening and reading; (2) If they recognize combinatory possibilities, and are able to make informed guesses about what word comes next, they become more fluent listeners and readers which lead to better comprehension. (p. 33)

On the other hand, there is a dearth of research looking into the collocational knowledge of Djiboutian learners of English in an EFL setting. Djiboutian students coming from a country where English is rarely spoken have restricted opportunities to get collocational knowledge and have scarcer opportunity to learn vocabulary in chunks.

They are accustomed to learning vocabulary in isolation by means of translation which causes them to less frequently encounter word sequences such as collocations. Moreover, their unfamiliarity with the language causes them to rely mostly on their first or second language which may cause a positive or negative transfer.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objectives of this study are:

1. To classify the types of collocations produced by the participants based on Benson et al.’s (1986) model of classification.

2. To identify the types of collocation which are the most and the least problematic to Djiboutian EFL learners.

3. To investigate the relationship between Djiboutian EFL learners' L2 writing skills and collocational competence.

4. To identify the basis for the participants’ difficulties with lexical collocations.

(19)

6 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the types of lexical collocation patterns used by Djiboutian EFL learners?

2. Which lexical collocation types are the most and the least problematic to Djiboutian EFL learners?

3. Is there any relationship between Djiboutian EFL learners' L2 writing skills and their collocational competence?

4. What are the bases for the participants’ difficulties with lexical collocations?

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The present study differs from previous studies in the sense that it investigates the collocations used by Djiboutian students in the EFL context. This study intends to explore Djiboutian students’ collocational knowledge and its effects on their written production. Moreover, to the researcher’s knowledge there is a dearth of research looking into the collocational knowledge of Djiboutian students in the EFL context.

Djiboutian EFL learners, like any other EFL learners, lag behind when it comes to producing acceptable word sequences in English. Due to the fact that Djiboutian students come from a country where English is a foreign language, less attempts have been made to give account of their collocational knowledge. Hence, this study shall be conducted with the intention to investigate the relationship between lexical collocation knowledge and the writing skills of Djiboutian students.

Therefore, the objective of this study is to provide an account of the role of collocation and its effect on language skills especially the writing skills of Djiboutian students. Furthermore, the study proposes to look at the relationship between

(20)

7

collocational knowledge and writing skills of Djiboutian students and examine if there is any correlation between Djiboutian EFL students’ use of correct lexical collocations frequency and their writing scores.

1.6. LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH

The current study examines the collocational knowledge of Djiboutian EFL learners.

Although the study addresses the research questions of the thesis, there are some limitations in the present study. This study is restricted to lexical collocations only and so does not provide the participants general knowledge of collocations. Moreover, the data of this research are limited to Djiboutian students who are very few in number thus the findings cannot be generalised. A larger sample of population would provide findings that could be generalized.

1.7. ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS

The first chapter is the background of the study and it presents the general idea of the research area. It also provides the aim of the study and its implication for the field of English as a foreign language in general and Djiboutian students in particular. Lastly, the chapter closes with a general overview of the research chapters.

The second chapter presents a review of the related research used as reference in this study. This chapter is further divided into sub-headings covering different parts of the current research. The first part deals with the importance of vocabulary in language learning. The second part is about lexical approaches. The next part is classification of collocations, the main causes for collocational errors, writing skills and collocational competence, empirical studies on collocation and lastly, the framework of the research.

(21)

8

The third chapter gives an account of the methodology of the study. It describes the instruments employed in the study, namely the multiple-choice test, writing test and semi-structured interview. The chapter finishes with a brief discussion of the data analysis procedures.

Chapter 4 reports the outcomes of the study and their explanation. It also discusses the result to provide answer for each of the four research questions of the study.

The fifth and final chapter gives a general summary of the entire study, and presents the implications of the study. It also presents suggestions and recommendations for further research.

1.8. SUMMARY

The present chapter is the introductory chapter laying the ground for the study. It starts with the background of the study followed by the problem statement. The rest of the chapter, deals with the objectives and research questions followed by the significance of the study. Finally, the chapter ends with the organisation of the study.

(22)

9

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. VOCABULARY AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Numerous studies have been done in the field of vocabulary teaching and learning most of which focus on the communicative teaching method. Based on this approach, vocabulary learning and teaching is mainly done implicitly by means of guessing and inferring from the available context. Therefore, most of the recent studies on vocabulary emphasize on the importance of rich context for the learners to pick up vocabulary incidentally (Krashen, 1989). Moreover, vocabulary knowledge is perceived to be a crucial aspect in the process of language learning since deficiency of vocabulary obstructs effective communication. Furthermore, emphasising on the important role of vocabulary Shmitt (2000) alleges that “lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language” (p. 55). However, it is only in recent years that vocabulary has received due attention from the researchers in the field of language learning and acquisition. As stated by Alsakran (2011), “vocabulary was seen, for the first time, as one of the most important aspects of second language learning when the reading method emerged” (p. 207). With the introduction of the concept of communicative competence by Hymes (1972) the focus shifted from language

“accuracy” to language “appropriateness”. This is to say teaching approaches take into consideration how the primary function of language is for communication rather than mere memorization of grammar rules. This awareness gave birth to newly emerged approaches dealing with the provision of contextualised learning. Therefore, rich vocabulary becomes a vital part of language teaching and learning. For that reason,

(23)

10

studying vocabulary acquisition is of utmost importance because it is a major aspect of language acquisition. In that sense the present study focuses on collocation which is a sub-part of vocabulary. Most of the studies on collocations are based on EFL learners.

Similarly, the present study intends to investigate EFL learners’ collocation competence but with regard to their writing skills.

Nation (1990), in his book “Teaching and Learning Vocabulary”

reviewed some of the research on vocabulary while providing pedagogical guidance through interpreting the research in terms of classroom applications. Language specialists have emphasized the need for curriculum designers, teachers and learners to create a systematic and principled approach to vocabulary teaching and learning.

This increased interest in vocabulary has produced an expanding body of experimental studies, pedagogical materials and computer-aided research, most of which address questions of crucial importance for both teachers and learners such as, 'what does it mean to know a word? (Decarrico, 2001). Research in this subject area has shown that most learners, even advanced ones, have at least some problems with their vocabulary, particularly in their production. One reason for this may be that learners usually try to learn the meaning of words individually without paying much attention to the relationships that words form with each other. This may be a consequence of their teachers' way of teaching. Lewis (1993) argues that there has been a tendency for teachers to teach single words and grammar at the expense of poly-word and fixed expressions. He sees this as misguided in the sense that language is made up of chunks mainly dotted with many fixed phrases and collocations. Concentrating on single words prevents the learner from seeing the essential patterns of the language that are in lexis.

(24)

11 2.1. LEXICAL APPROACH

Literature has shown that knowledge of collocations is important and necessary for the successful learning of language in general and vocabulary learning in particular. Hill (1999) contends that collocation is important to achieve fluency both in written and oral language. In addition, he claims that learning words in chunks improves pronunciation and intonation, and speeds up reading through the chunking of phrases. Previous research also shows that unfamiliarity with collocations often leads to serious problems in language production.

Additionally, what makes collocation unclear is that they are sometimes categorized as idioms, since it is often thought that no clear distinction can be made between a collocation and an idiom (e.g., 1947; Wallace, 1979; Sinclair, 1991). For instance, Brashi (2005) considers collocations as idiomatic expressions, in which two words are habitually combined together for the sake of emphasis. For example, far and away (emphatic), over and over (emphatic repetition), part and parcel (emphasis by alliteration), fair and square (emphasis by rhyme), heads or tails (emphasis by the contrast of two words) and now and then (emphasis by inclusive phrases). Similarly, Wallace (1979) does not seem to differentiate between collocations, proverbs and idioms. He perceives collocation expressions such as ‘to be honest with’ and proverbs such as ‘don’t count your chickens before they are hatched’ as a subcategory of idioms.

Sinclair (1991) also gives a very generic definition of collocations by saying that "a collocation is the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text" (1999, p.170). He suggests, as a measure of proximity, a maximum of four words intervening in between standing together. Certainly, this definition suggests that all occurrences of two or more words, including idioms, are considered to be

Rujukan

DOKUMEN BERKAITAN

storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from The Secretariat ISICAS 2015, Institut Islam Hadhari (HADHARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM

In view of the above phenomenon and to fill-in the gap, this study attempts: first, to determine consumers’ general purchasing behaviour pattern when they

The aim of this study is to establish the percentage of mismatch bCI\\ cell the an thropometries variable and the classroom chaIr dimension used during school

The objectives of the study are to find out whether these revision strategies are able to improve Form Five students' writing and to investigate which revision strategies:

This study was designed to investigate types of management and decision making styles used in selected Malaysian public universities and their relations to

The first author’s skills in supervising masters’ students began in 1996 and similar to the assertion made by Woolhouse, she fell back on her own experiences with her own

In this research, the independent variables have been identified which are space layout, furniture arrangement and office lighting system, in which these variables

1.6.1 Motivation of the athletes to execute the test 8 1.6.2 Experiences of the athletes from the past testing which effect this study 8 1.6.3 Athletes' physical fitness level.