CAMPUS CULTISM AND VIOLENCE IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY OF
THE UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
BY
AMINU ZUBAIRU SURAJO
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in
Sociology and Anthropology
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2018
ii
ABSTRACT
Cultism on Nigerian university campuses is a serious phenomenon. It creates a problem not only for undergraduate students and the university community, But, to the entire educational, social, economic and political structures of the country.
Consequently, it is essential to conduct an empirical study on this issue in order to produce data needed to resolve the menace of cultism and violence among different rival cult groups in some Nigerian university campuses. The present study aims at examining the motivational factors to join cult groups among undergraduate students, the relationship between campus cultism and violence, the impact of campus cultism on the Nigerian educational system, as well as the role of the government in eliminating campus cultism in Nigerian universities. To ensure a complete analysis of the data, the study utilizes a qualitative methodology. This involved in-depth interviews with 20 respondents whose responses are coded into themes based on the objectives of the study. The study revealed that campus cultism among the respondents was motivated by a wide range of social, personal, economic, emotional and political factors. The findings of the study also indicated that there is a strong relationship between cultism and violence. Among the causes of cult violence include drug abuse, lack of parental training, struggle for dominance among different rival cult groups, failure of cult members to respect one another, snatching of cult members’
girlfriends and lack of tolerance among different cult members. Therefore, cultism affects the higher educational system of Nigeria in a greater proportion. The effects of the inter-cult crises includes damage done to university facilities, interruption of the planned academic calendar for the semester, suspension of social and recreational activities on campus, reduction in the number of prospective applicants into the affected universities and migration of qualified lecturers from the universities. The solutions to the problem of campus cultism include moral reorientation campaigns, public enlightenment through conferences and workshops, parental training and attachment, guidance and counselling as well as involvement of students in sporting activities. Moreover, the results of the study also disclose that the government has an important role to play in bringing a lasting solution to the problem. So, the findings of the study require a complete and multi-dimensional method to address the problem of cultism and violence on Nigerian university campuses.
iii
صخلم ثحبلا
ABSTRACT IN ARABIC
عمالجا مرح في ةيفئاطلا دل سيل تلاكشم قلتخ يهف .ةروطلخا ةغلبا ةرهاظ ةييرجينلا تا
ى بلاطلا
بسحف يعمالجا عمنلمجاو ينيعمالجا لب ،
يميلعتلا ماظنلا لكل
، يعامتجلااو
، يداصتقلااو
، ةينبللو
،كلذل ةجيتن .دلابلل ةيسايسلا ةيبيرتج ةسارد ءارجإ يرورضلا نم هنإف
في ةلأسلما هذه
؛ يرفوتل كلذو
تناايبلا مرح لخاد ةسفانتلما فئاوطلا فلتمخ ينب فنعلاو ةيفئاطلا ديدهتل يدصتلل ةيرورضلا
بلاط ينب ةيفئاطلل ةيزيفحتلا لماوعلا ةسارد لىإ ةساردلا هذه فدته .ةييرجينلا تاعمالجا ضعب يعمالجا مرلحا لخاد ةيفئاطلا رثأو ،فنعلاو يعمالجا مرلحا لخاد ةيفئاطلا ينب ةقلاعلاو ،تاعمالجا ع في يعمالجا مرلحا لخاد ةيفئاطلا لاصئتسا في ةموكلحا رود كلذكو ،ييرجينلا يميلعتلا ماظنلا ىل دقو .ةيعونلا ةيجهنلما ىلع ةساردلا تدمتعا ،تناايبلل لماش ليلتح نامضلو .ةييرجينلا تاعمالجا
ح ،تاعوضوم لىإ متهبااجإ زيمرت تم نيذلاو ،اكراشم نيرشع عم تلاباقم ءارجإ اذه لشم بس
ينكراشلما ينب تاعمالجا مرح لخاد ةيفئاطلا عفاود نأ ةساردلا تفشك دقو اذه .ثحبلا فادهأ ةساردلا جئاتن يرشت .ةيسايسلاو ةيفطاعلاو ةيداصتقلااو ةيصخشلاو ةيعامتجلاا لماوعلا ينب حواترت يطاعت يفئاطلا فنعلا بابسأ ينب نمف .فنعلاو ةيفئاطلا ينب ةقيثو ةقلاع كانه نأ لىإ ينب ماترحلاا ةلقو ،ةسفانتلما فئاوطلا فلتمخ ينب ةنميهلل عارصلاو ،نيدلاولا ةيعوت مدعو ،تاردخلما ،هيلعو .ةدحاولا ةفئاطلا دارفأ ينب حماستلا مدعو ،فئاوطلا دارفأ تلايلخ عازتناو ،ةفئاطلا دارفأ مشت .يربك دح لىإ ييرجينلا لياعلا ميلعتلا ماظن ىلع ةيفئاطلا ترَّثأ دقف ينب تاعارصلا رثاآ ل
جمارب ءاغلإو ،يساردلا لصفلل ضترفلما لودلجا ىلع شيوشتلاو ،ةعمالجا قفاربم رارضلإا فئاوطلا يهيفرت ة ةرجهو ،ةررضتلما تاعماجلل ينمدقتلما ددع في صقنلاو ،يعمالجا مرلحا لخاد ةيعامتجاو
فئاطلا ةلكشلم ةحترقلما لوللحا نم .ةعمالجا نم ءافكلأا ةذتاسلأا ةلحم يعمالجا مرلحا لخاد ةي
تارتمؤلما قيرط نع ماعلا ريونتلاو ،يقلاخلأا يعولا
، هيجوتلاو ،ءبالآا ةيعوتو ،لمعلا تاشروو
نأ لىإ ةساردلا جئاتن يرشت ،كلذ ىلع ةولاع .ةيضيار جمارب في بلاطلا ةكراشم كلذكو ،داشرلإاو نأ ةموكلحا ىلع يدؤت
لكشملل مئاد لح دايجإ في امهم ارود ثحبلا جئاتن بلاطت ،هيلعو .ة
.ةييرجينلا تاعمالجا مرح لخاد فنعلاو ةيفئاطلا ةلكشم ةلجاعلم داعبلأا ددعتم لماك جهنبم
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
The dissertation of Aminu Zubairu Surajo has been approved by the following:
__________________________________
A. H. M. Zehadul Karim Supervisor
__________________________________
Nurazzura Mohamad Diah Co-Supervisor
__________________________________
Rohaiza Rokis Internal Examiner
__________________________________
Wardatul Akmam External Examiner
__________________________________
Abba Gana Shettima External Examiner
__________________________________
Saim Kayadibi Chairperson
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Aminu Zubairu Surajo
Signature………....………. Date …….……….
vi
COPYRIGHT
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
CAMPUS CULTISM AND VIOLENCE IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY OF
THE UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2018 Aminu Zubairu Surajo and International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Aminu Zubairu Surajo
……..……….. ………..
Signature Date
vii
DEDICATION
To my late father Alhaji Zubairu Surajo and my mother Hajiya Hauwa Zubairu
“And, out of kindness, lower to them the wing of humility, and say: My Lord!
Bestow on them thy Mercy even as they cherished me in childhood." Suratul Isra’i:
verse 24
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises are due to Almighty Allah, May peace and blessings are upon Prophet Muhammad (SAW), His household, companions and whosoever follows His footsteps till the day of judgment.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and countless appreciation to my supervisor, mentor and source of my inspiration, Prof. Dr. A.H.M. Zehadul Karim for his incessant support, determination, understanding, expertise and supervision of this dissertation. His continuous encouragement, guidance and deliverance of experienced advice leads to the production of this dissertation. He sacrificed most of his time and wealth of experience to make it possible. May Almighty Allah (SWT) shower his parents and his family with boundless mercy and grant them Al-Jannatul Firdaws. Ameen.
My special thanks go to my co-supervisor, Associate Prof. Dr. Nurazzura Mohamad Diah, my internal examiner, Associate Prof. Dr. Rohaiza Rokis, the Head of Department, Asst. Prof. Dr. Nor Azlin Tajuddin, the Secretary to the Department, Sister Erdawatie Abdul Rahman and the entire academic staff of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology for their support and guidance.
I also like to express my profound and vast gratitude to my late father Alhaji Zubairu Surajo and my mother Hajiya Hauwa Zubairu for spending their valuable time and wealth to make me what I am today. May Allah (SWT) grant my father eternal rest in peace and my mother, long life and prosperity. Ameen.
I would also like to record my sincere gratitude to my loving and supportive wife, Aisha Adamu, my children Halima, Zainab, Adamu (Abba) and Fa’iza who had provided me with support, love and encouragement throughout the years of my studies. I love you all.
My special thanks go to my mother-in-law, Hajiya Hauwa Sambo Hassan, who provided me with financial and moral support during my studies. May Allah SWT bless her and her entire family.
I also wish to thank my brothers and sisters such as Salisu Zubairu, Lawan Zubairu, Ado Zubairu, Haruna Zubairu, Isma’il Zubairu Ahmad, Ibrahim Zubairu, Auwalu Zubairu, Bashir Zubairu, Shafa’atu Zubairu, Kubura Zubairu Safiya Zubairu and Rabi’atu Zubairu whose perpetual advice, support and motivation give me the strength to accomplish my mission. May Allah (SWT) reward all of you.
Finally, I wish to thank my friends, particularly Badruel Hairiel Ibn Abdrahim, Auwalu Sale Yakasai, Rabiu Garba Idris, Nura Sharif Awaisu, Rufa’i Uba Hamza, Aliyu Ahmed, Bashir Alkali, Jamilu Musa, Salisu Babangida, Auwalu Umar, Aminu Mohammed, Idris Yusha’u, Usaini Danjuma, Haruna Ibrahim, Safiyanu Suleiman Sale, Haruna Ibrahim, Abubakar Salisu Garba, Umar Muhammad Gazali, Muttaka Dahiru, Abdulkadir Shitu Umar Muhammad Jamilu Haruna and Muhammad Muhammad Dawakin Kudu for their support and encouragement.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ... ii
Abstract in Arabic ... iii
Approval Page ... iv
Declaration ... v
Copyright ... vi
Dedication ... vii
Acknowledgements ... viii
List of Tables ... xv
List of Figures ... xvi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ... 1
1.2 Statement of Problem ... 4
1.3 Research Questions ... 6
1.4 Objectives of the Study ... 6
1.5 Significance of Research ... 6
1.6 Operational Definition of Terms ... 8
1.6.1 Cult ... 8
1.6.2 Cultism ... 9
1.6.3 Campus Cultism ... 10
1.6.4 Violence ... 11
1.6.5 Fraternity ... 11
1.6.6 Sorority ... 11
1.7 Proposed Chapter Outlines ... 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 14
2.1 The Trends of Cultism on University Campuses ... 14
2.2 An Account on the Activities of Fraternities and Sororities... 15
2.3 An Overview of Campus Cultism in Nigerian Universities ... 16
2.4 The Menace of Cultism ... 18
2.5 Students and Cultism ... 19
2.6 Cultism and Violence in the Nigerian University Campuses ... 21
2.7 Cultism and the Educational System of Nigerian Universities ... 22
2.8 Theoretical Framework ... 24
2.8.1 The social control theory ... 24
2.8.2 Frustration-Aggression Displacement Theory ... 25
2.8.3 Differential Association Theory ... 26
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 29
3.1 Research Design ... 29
3.2 Respondents ... 30
3.3 Research Site ... 31
3.4 Data Collection Technique ... 31
3.5 Research Ethics ... 32
3.6 Dependability and Trustworthiness of the Data ... 33
x
3.7 Data Analysis Procedure ... 33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ... 36
4.1 Introduction ... 36
4.2 Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ... 36
4.2.1 Benin City, Nigeria ... 41
4.2.2 An overview of the University of Benin ... 41
4.3 Themes of the Respondents’ History as a Cult Member ... 43
4.3.1 Time of Joining the Cults ... 43
4.3.2 Mode of Joining the Cult Groups ... 44
4.3.3 Duration as Cult Members ... 46
4.3.4 Role of Members in the Cults ... 46
4.4 Themes of Motivational Factors to Join Cult Groups ... 47
4.4.1 Social Factors ... 49
4.4.1.1 Desire to be Safe on campus ... 49
4.4.1.2 Desire to Take Revenge against Enemies ... 50
4.4.1.3 Unity of Cult Members ... 51
4.4.1.4 Determination to Fight Enemies ... 52
4.4.1.5 Negligence of the Family ... 52
4.4.2 Emotional Factors ... 53
4.4.2.1 Self-Confidence ... 53
4.4.2.2 Desire to have Perfect Satisfaction ... 54
4.4.2.3 Courageous Attitudes of Cult Members ... 55
4.4.3 Personal Factors ... 56
4.4.3.1 Manner of Speech ... 56
4.4.3.2 Gorgeous Dressing and Good Looks ... 57
4.4.4 Political Factors ... 57
4.4.4.1 Attitudes towards Politics ... 57
4.4.4.2 Desire to have Connections and Power ... 59
4.4.4.3 Desire to be Popular and Famous ... 60
4.4.5 Economic Factors ... 60
4.4.5.1 Extravagant Spending ... 61
4.4.5.2 The Desire to be Rich ... 62
4.5 Themes of the Relationship between Campus Cultism and Violence ... 63
4.5.1 Causes of Cult Violence ... 65
4.5.1.1 Struggle for Supremacy and Power ... 65
4.5.1.2 Lack of Respect for Each Other ... 66
4.5.1.3 Oppose Rival Cult Groups Activities ... 67
4.5.1.4 Snatch a Female Student Belonging to Another Cult Member ... 68
4.5.1.5 Favouring One Student over Another ... 69
4.5.1.6 Fight for the Cause of a Cult Member ... 70
4.5.1.7 Support for Different Candidates or Political Parties ... 71
4.5.1.8 Lack of Tolerance ... 72
4.5.2 Reasons for Cult Members’ Aggressiveness ... 73
4.5.2.1 As Part of Cult Groups Orientation ... 73
4.5.2.2 As a Self-Defence ... 74
4.5.2.3 To Protect the Member’s Interests ... 74
4.5.2.4 Inability to Forgive Enemies ... 75
xi
4.5.2.5 The Effects of Drug Abuse ... 76
4.5.2.6 Lack of Parental Training ... 77
4.5.2.7 Lack of Respect for the Constituted Authority ... 78
4.5.2.8 Unjust Relationship between Lecturers and Students on Campus ... 79
4.5.2.9 Punishment of Cult Members ... 80
4.5.2.10 As a Sign of Fearlessness and Gallantry ... 80
4.5.2.11 In the Course of Retaliation ... 81
4.5.2.12 Revealing Cult Members’ Secrecy ... 82
4.5.3 The Effect of Cult Violence on Students ... 83
4.5.3.1 Inability to Move Away from the Conflict None ... 83
4.5.3.2 Support the Rival Cult Groups ... 84
4.5.3.3 Leak Information to Security Personnel ... 85
4.5.3.4 Expose Cult Members’ Malpractice ... 86
4.5.3.5 Provide Financial or Logistic Support ... 87
4.5.3.6 Cult Members’ Frustration Due to the Absence of Social Needs ... 88
4.5.3.7 Innocent Students Associating with Cult Members ... 89
4.6 Themes of the Ways of Restoring Past Glories of Early Secret Cults... 92
4.6.1 Ways of Restoring Past Glories of Early Secret Cults ... 93
4.6.1.1 Public Enlightenment on the Goals of the Early Fraternities ... 94
4.6.1.2 Reconciliation ... 94
4.6.1.3 Cult Members’ Orientation ... 95
4.6.1.4 Regard Rival Cult Members as Brothers and Partners in Progress ... 96
4.6.1.5 Avoid Violent Confrontations ... 96
4.6.1.6 Stop Smoking, Drinking and Fornication ... 97
4.6.1.7 Become Disciplined, Principled, Talented and Brilliant in Academic Pursuits ... 98
4.6.1.8 Engage in Enduring Friendship and Scholarship ... 99
4.6.1.9 Promote the Achievements of the British and American University Cults ... 100
4.6.1.10 Publicised the Rationale Behind the Establishment of a Fraternity Known as Campus Cult ... 101
4.7 Themes of the Impact of Campus Cultism on the Educational System ... 102
4.7.1 The Effect of Inter-Cult Crises on the Educational System ... 104
4.7.1.1 Damage One to the University Facilities ... 104
4.7.1.2 Abandonment of Classes by Both Students and Lecturers ... 105
4.7.1.3 Disrupt the Academic Calendar ... 105
4.7.1.4 Suspending Social and Recreational Activities ... 106
4.7.1.5 Reduce the Rate of Student Intake ... 107
4.7.1.6 Drop in the University Ranking ... 108
4.7.1.7 Scarcity of Qualified Lecturers in the University ... 108
4.7.1.8 Boycotting Sporting Events at the University ... 109
4.7.1.9 The Absence of Genuine Clubs and Societies to Enhance Students’ Social Life ... 110
xii
4.7.1.10 Reduce Conferences, Workshops and Seminar
Attendance ... 111
4.7.1.11 Unsuccessful Execution of Research ... 111
4.7.1.12 Suspension of Contract Awarded ... 112
4.7.2 Students Hardships during a Rival Cult Crises ... 112
4.7.2.1 Rustication or Dismissal of Students ... 112
4.7.2.2 Injury of Innocent Students ... 113
4.7.2.3 Pay for the Damages Done to the University Facilities by all Students ... 114
4.7.2.4 Live in Fear ... 115
4.7.2.5 Spend Many Days Indoors ... 116
4.7.2.6 Extension of the Semester by Some Months ... 117
4.7.2.7 Missing of Lectures by the Injured Students ... 117
4.7.2.8 Systematic Close Down of Shops, Cafeterias and Business Centres ... 118
4.7.2.9 Compulsory Trekking for Students Some Kilometres Away from the University ... 119
4.7.2.10 Students Vacating Campuses to Live Off Campus ... 120
4.7.2.11 Spending Extra Money on Transportation by the Students ... 120
4.7.2.12 Disturbs Peace and Security Due to the Sound of Gun Shootings ... 121
4.8 Themes of the Establishment of Campus Cult Regulatory Body ... 122
4.8.1 Establishing a Regulatory Body as a Way Out ... 122
4.8.2 Formation of Regulatory Body as Unnecessary ... 124
4.9 Themes of the Solutions to the Problem of Campus Cultism ... 126
4.9.1 Embark on Massive Moral Re-orientation Campaign ... 128
4.9.2 Adopt Public Enlightenment to Understand the Effects of Cultism ... 128
4.9.3 Organise Annual Workshop on the Effects of Campus Cultism .... 130
4.9.4 Emphasise on Family Attachment ... 130
4.9.5 Impose Sanctions on Students Suspected to be Cult Members ... 131
4.9.6 Organise Counselling Session for the Entire Students ... 132
4.9.7 Scrutinise Students’ Behaviour and Moral Character before Admission ... 132
4.9.8 Discover and Destroy the Sanctuaries and Initiation Centres of Cult Members ... 134
4.9.9 Engage Students in Sports Competitions ... 134
4.9.10 Encourage Academic Competitions ... 135
4.9.11 Make University Education Affordable for Each and Every Student ... 136
4.9.12 Lecturer’s Objectivities in Giving Student Assessment Without Bias ... 137
4.9.13 Promote Social Activities and Scholarship on Campus ... 137
4.9.14 Enforce Students to Swear an Oath before Giving Admission ... 138
4.9.15 Tackle Welfare Issues and Needs of the Students ... 139
4.9.16 Place a Ban on Cultural, Political or Religious Organisations Suspected to be a Security Risk ... 140
4.9.17 Discourage Politicians from Supporting Cult Members ... 141
xiii
4.9.18 Arrange Severe Punishment for the Sponsors ... 142
4.9.19 Stop Admitting any Student Dismissed from another University ... 142
4.9.20 Place a Ban on Community Cults ... 143
4.10 Themes of The Role of Government in Eliminating Campus Cultism ... 144
4.10.1 Provide Adequate Securities to the University Campuses ... 146
4.10.2 Assign Plain Clothes Security Agents as Cult Members to Campuses ... 147
4.10.3 Shut down the Universities with High Records of Cult Violence ... 148
4.10.4 Invite Stakeholders Meeting to Discuss University Security Issues ... 149
4.10.5 Enact a Stringent Law concerning Campus Cultism ... 150
4.10.6 Inaugurate a Committee of Elders to Reconcile with Rival Cult Groups ... 151
4.10.7 Ban any Cult Member Sentenced for Giving Future Political Appointment or Position ... 151
4.10.8 Reduce University Tuition Fees ... 152
4.10.9 Initiate a Scholarship to Students who Excel in Academics ... 153
4.10.10 Equip the University with Up to Date Laboratory Equipment, Modern Teaching Materials and the Latest Books in the Library ... 154
4.11 Conclusion ... 154
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ... 156
5.1 Introduction ... 156
5.2 Discussion ... 156
5.2.1 Motivational Factors to cultism ... 156
5.2.2 Relationship between Campus Cultism and Violence ... 163
5.2.2.1 Causes of Cult Violence ... 163
5.2.2 2 Reasons for Cult Members’ Aggressiveness ... 166
5.2.2 3 The effect of Cult Violence on Students ... 171
5.2.3 Ways of Restoring Past Glories of Early Secret Cults ... 173
5.2.4 Impact of Campus Cultism on the Educational System ... 176
5.2.4.1 Effects of Inter-Cult Crises on the Educational System ... 176
5.2.4.2 Students’ Hardships during A rival cult crises ... 181
5.2.5 Establishment of Campus Cult Regulatory Body ... 185
5.2.5.1 Establishing a Regulatory Body as a Way Out ... 186
5.2.5.2 Formation of Regulatory Body as Unnecessary ... 189
5.2.6 Solutions to the Problem of Campus Cultism ... 190
5.2.7 The Role of Government in Eliminating Campus Cultism ... 200
5.3 Conclusion ... 206
5.4 Recommendations ... 209
5.4.1 Proper Parental Training ... 210
5.4.2 Admission of Students Based on Merit ... 210
5.4.3 Appropriate Actions against Staff and Students’ Involved in Cultism ... 211
xiv
5.4.4 Provision of Sufficient Fund for the University ... 211
5.4.5 Provide Adequate Facilities and Equipment to the University ... 212
5.4.6 Discourage Politicians from Supporting Cult Members ... 212
5.4.7 Preach Against Violence and Cultism by the Religious Organizations ... 213
5.4.8 Reinforce Responsibility and Transparency in the Administration of National Wealth ... 213
5.4.9 Propagate Moral Reorientation ... 214
5.4.10 Move Away From Cult Members ... 214
5.4.11 Provide Sporting and Recreational Services ... 215
5.4.12 Promulgate Law that will Deal with Cult Members Severely ... 215
5.4.13 Public Enlightenment Campaign ... 216
5.4.14 Establishment of Regulatory Body ... 216
5.4.15 Establishment of Guidance and Counselling Unit ... 217
5.4.16 Encourage Active Student Unionism ... 217
5.4.17 Stop the Oppressive Policy by the University Authority ... 218
5.5 Suggestions for Future Research ... 218
REFERENCES ... 220
APPENDIX INTERVIEW GUIDE ... 231
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Number of students killed or maimed because of cult related violence on campuses of Nigerian universities from 1995 –
2015. 3
Table 4.1 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Age 36
Table 4.2 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Gender 37
Table 4.3 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Department 38
Table 4.4 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Cults 38
Table 4.5 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Family Size 39
Table 4.6 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
according to Household Income 40
Table 4.7 Time of Joining the Cults 44
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Approach 27
Figure 4.1 A map of Africa showing Benin City of Nigeria 41
Figure 4.2 University of Benin Main Gate, Ugbowo Campus 42
Figure 4.3 Respondents’ History as a Cult Member 43
Figure 4.4 Presenting the initiation ceremony of the newly admitted
students into a cult 47
Figure 4.5 Respondents’ motivational factors to cultism 48
Figure 4.6 Relationship between campus cultism and violence 64 Figure 4.7 The logo of The Order of the Skull and Bones or Brotherhood
of Death 90
Figure 4.8 The Logo of Pyrate Confraternity or National Association of
Seadogs (NAS) 91
Figure 4.9 Group pictures of seven undergraduate students of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria who become the early secret cult
groups known as Pyrate Confraternity in 1952 91
Figure 4.10 Ways of restoring past glories of early secret cults 93 Figure 4.11 The impact of campus cultism on the educational system 103 Figure 4.12 Some of the weapons used by cult members on campus seized
by the Police 114
Figure 4.13 The establishment of campus cult regulatory body 122
Figure 4.14 Solutions to the problem of campus cultism 127
Figure 4.15 A billboard erected at the gate of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria warns both old and new students to distance
themselves away from cultism 129
Figure 4.16 The role of the government in eliminating campus cultism 145
1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
University education in Nigeria is widely acknowledged as the most important issue for promoting socio-cultural, political and economic development (Ajayi et al., 2010).
Universities train upcoming leaders and help develop the complex technical skills that reinforce economic growth and social progress (Ogunsanya, 2008). Equally, universities are regarded as citadels of learning and they are considered environments of joy and pride by students who obtain admission and complete their studies without hindrance (Oroka, 2008). Nigerian universities have continued to contribute to such prescribed directions. However, from the beginning of the 1970s to date, many universities in the country started to encounter setbacks and obstructions on their campuses due to incessant undergraduate cult activities (Adebayo, 2001).
It is common knowledge that all forms of student misbehaviour in Nigerian universities, such as rudeness, lack of respect for lecturers and constituted authorities as well as other forms of anti-social behaviours, have started from the activities of secret cult groups (Ossai, 2001). The activities of student cultism exist in southern Nigerian universities, which are dominated predominantly by the Christians and the followers of traditional religions (Mohammed, 2004).
Undergraduate student cult groups in Nigerian universities started as fraternities and sororities on campuses from the 1950s to the end of 1970s with noble ideals similar to those existing in British and American university (Olaoye, 2002). Their aim at that time was to fight British colonialism, revive the age of chivalry, safeguard the positive self-
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image of man and liberate Nigerian society from tribalism and elitism. It was also part of campus life, which promotes confidence, lifelong friendship and scholarship, encourages engagement in philanthropy and community service, endorses leadership potential and assists members in maintaining high academic standards (Olaoye, 2002).
Nevertheless, after several years of internal crises, some members of the first fraternity (i.e. Pyrate Confraternity) break away to form numerous fraternities such as the Eiye, the Black Axe, the Buccaneers, the Vikings, the KKK, the Mafia and the Family Fraternity (Soyinka, 2002). Therefore, because of that, some students twisted the original aims of fraternities and sororities to criminal gangs which are known as campus secret cult groups (Eneji, 2006). They are characterized by violent activities such as disrupting lectures and examinations, scaring innocent students with rampant and indiscriminate gun shootings on campuses, embarrassing lecturers and staff, as well as struggling for supremacy between rival cult groups on campus that eventually leads to maiming and killing of many cult members (Adebayo, 2001).
The members of the cult groups on campuses share and propagate their peculiar, But, secret beliefs only to members. They engage in practices that involve secret rituals like swearing to some deity and tasting human blood. Besides that, they engage in occultist habits like alcoholic drinking and physical torture such as flogging and cutting some part of the body, as a means of initiating new members (Okwe 2002).
The increase of students’ participation in cult-related activities in Nigerian universities appears persistent despite a series of efforts by the government and university authorities to control the practices. (Adelola, 2007). According to Osakinle and Falana (2011), some efforts made by the universities to control the situation include punishment such as rustication or dismissal of students’ involved, criminal
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prosecution of cult members and withdrawal of certificates of cult members after graduation. In addition to that, the government promulgates laws banning campus cultism as part of an intervention to rescue higher education in Nigeria. There are also enforces pronouncement of non-membership of cult groups by the entire student body placement of anti-cultism stickers, posters and billboards on the university premises warning students not to get involved in cult-related activities (Echekwube, 2009).
Similarly, names and pictures of cult members are also published in newspapers to enable the general public to identify them, all with the aim of providing cautionary measures to current and new students from participating on campus cultism (Osakinle
& Falana, 2011). In spite of the above efforts been expanded to eradicate the problem among undergraduate students, campus cultism continues to flourish in many Nigerian universities and consequently affects the learning atmosphere in the country. A survey carried out by the Community Leadership Initiative (CLI), a non-governmental organization based in Lagos, Nigeria, show the increasing rate of casualties because of cult violence in Nigerian universities.
Table 1.1 Number of students killed or maimed because of cult related violence on campuses of Nigerian universities from 1995 – 2015.
Undergraduate students 1995 - 2005 2006 - 2015
Students’ killed 62 (21%) 230 (79%)
Students’ maimed 121 (20%) 475 (80%)
Source: Community Leadership Initiative (CLI) 2016, p10
The above table show the number of undergraduate students killed throughout the country in cult related violence from 1995 to 2015. This includes 62 students
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killed from 1995 to 2005, making it a total of 21%. Similarly, students killed from 2006 to 2015 amounted to 230, making it a total of 79%. While students maimed from 1995 to 2005 constitute 121 in number, which is 20%. And those maimed from 2006 to 2015 comprises 475 students, making it a total of 80%.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The persistence of cultism among undergraduate students of Nigerian universities remains one of the most alarming issues faced by the universities concerning the education in the country today (Uchenna, 2014). The campuses of many Nigerian universities become an environment where bloodshed is frequent among rival cult groups as well as attacks, coercion and intimidations of innocent members of the university community, such as students, lecturers and non-academic staff (Martha &
Musa, 2007). Besides that, examination misconduct, indiscriminate shootings, alcoholic drinks, hard drug consumptions and other nefarious activities become the order of the day among student cult members on campus (Egbule, 2006).
There had been an upsurge in cult related killings at the University of Benin which can be attributed to suspected retaliations. In May 2004, the Black Axe cult members launched an attack against the Eiye cult group on the Ogbowo campus of the university to avenge the killing of one of their members. When the bloody clash started, there was an exchange of gunfire between the two cults, which leads to the murder of three Eiye cult members, while at least 10 are injured including innocent students (Alemika, 2010). Similarly, in July 2011 another clash erupted between two rival cult groups at the Ekehuan campus of the university. No fewer than four students are killed by means of axes and guns in the alleged killings and university properties are destroyed (Edun, 2012). Thereafter, sporadic gun shootings and clashes erupted
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between rival cult groups from time to time on the two campuses of the university as well as outside the campus, particularly at night, which made life unbearable among students (Dosumu & Pemede, 2002).
Certainly, the threat has reached a vital stage that lecturers, university administrators, education planners, parents and the government are worried about the maintenance of law and order on campuses (Wodi, 2006). The efforts by the government towards reducing the menace of cultism have only yielded unsatisfactory results (Adebayo, 2001). Thus, campus cultism remains one of the major challenges for tertiary education in Nigeria (Nzimiro, 2009). The extent of this problem necessitates the need to conduct an empirical study on the matter. Although numerous studies have been carried out on student cult activities in the country’s tertiary institutions, none of these studies have conducted face-to-face interviews with repented cult members (Smah, 2001; Abari et al., 2006; Viatonu and Adebowale, 2007; Omoegun and Akanle 2007; Kpangban et al., 2008; Chinwe & Joy Mag, 2014).
Unlike previous studies on cultism, this research is unique, as it focuses on qualitative methodology by conducting an in-depth exploration with cult members who repented and renounced their cult membership. This aims at obtaining a holistic and in-depth exploration on the factors that motivate some undergraduate students to cultism, the relationship between campus cultism and violence and the impact of campus cultism on the educational system of Nigeria. Similarly, the study assesses the role of the government in eliminating campus cultism in Nigerian universities.
Therefore, the study is necessary in order to fill the existing gap in knowledge needed in educational and social development planning.
6 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The fundamental questions that require investigation are:
1. What motivates some undergraduate students of the University of Benin, Nigeria to cultism?
2. Does campus cultism leads to violence at the University of Benin, Nigeria?
3. What are the impacts of campus cultism on the educational system of Nigeria?
4. What is the role of the government in eliminating campus cultism in Nigerian universities?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study aims to achieve the following objectives:
1. To find out the factors that motivates some undergraduate students of the University of Benin, Nigeria to cultism.
2. To examine the relationship between campus cultism and violence at the University of Benin, Nigeria.
3. To find out the impact of campus cultism on the educational system of Nigeria.
4. To assess the role of the government in eliminating campus cultism in Nigerian universities.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
The menace of cultism in Nigerian universities attracts the attention of the government to employ measures towards addressing the problem (Aboribo, 2009). The
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government is determined to eliminate campus cultism in Nigerian universities through various measures and laws coupled with the assistance of parents, university authorities and the general public (Rotimi, 2005). This effort will yield the desired outcomes when there are adequate inputs that guide policy formulation and implementation regarding cultism. It is for this reason that this study is useful as an important academic document that provides additional information about cultism in Nigerian universities.
Thus, the study examines the relationship between campus cultism and violence in Nigerian universities. The effect of cultism on education and its threat to national development raises the demand for empirical investigation on the issue.
Therefore, the study provides useful ground for intervention in order to propel solutions to the problems with a view of relieving the country’s universities from the terrible activities of student cultists in order to enhance healthy academic environment as well as to improve the socio-economic spheres of students.
Besides that, the study helps greatly in identifying the nature, causes and consequences of cultism on university campuses. The study guides policy makers and change agents, particularly in the higher education sectors to design and formulate more appropriate measures and laws to control these reprehensible activities of undergraduate students on campuses by allowing government and university authorities to design and implement swift actions against the menace of the problem.
Furthermore, the findings reveal the impacts of previous and existing measures aimed at eliminating campus cultism among undergraduate students in the country.
This enables the university authorities, government as well as parents to find a lasting solution to the problem by making necessary adjustments in terms of monitoring, planning and implementing policies.
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The findings also identify the impact of campus cultism on the educational system so that necessary action can be adopted in order not to interfere with and destabilize the smooth learning atmosphere in Nigerian universities. In the same direction, the findings assist the government to assess the degree of violence occurring on campuses and its relationship with cultism thereby imposing severe disciplinary action against students’ involved in cult related activities in order to serve as a deterrent to others.
Moreover, this research helps in uniting the stakeholders in the higher education sector, such as the government, university lecturers, university administrators, student unions, parents, communities and religious leaders. Others include human rights activists and non-governmental organizations all with the aim of addressing the problem through the allocation of extra funds to Nigerian universities, improving public enlightenment campaigns and organise seminars and workshops on the menace of campus cultism. The research also significantly contributes to the existing literature on campus cultism in the country, which serves as a valuable reference for academic purposes.
1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.6.1 Cult
Kaplan (1995) provides an anthropological definition of cult “as the religious practice that occurs in traditional tribal societies in the procedure of contact with technologically advanced cultures. The cult is concentrated on attaining the physical prosperity of the advance cultures through magical thinking and religious ritual and practice”. In another definition, Malone and Barrowclough (2007) defined cult “as the practice of worship inside the religious setting”.
