CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Resources and Plant Resources
In many economics texts, the term resources is used synonymously with the factors of production. Resources generate value both directly and indirectly. Directly refer to the consumption of environmental amenities and indirectly through produced goods or services. Its can be classified into renewable and non-renewable resource as shown in Figure 1.1. Renewable resources including energy flow resources, biological stock resources and physical stock resources.
Renewable resources are also be potentially for exhaustibility. This situation is related to the manner in which the resources is available and the way it can be used.
Biological stock resources such as forest, fish and animal population and other biomass stocks are often renewable, but are also potentially exhaustible. If the resources stock size or population level is sufficiently large, reduction in stock through harvesting can be regenerated through biological growth process. However, if the population or stock size were ever to fall below its threshold, the population would fall to zero if overharvesting occurs.
Energy flow resources such as in the form of wind, tidal, wave and solar flows often labeled as ‘renewable resources’ but they are not exhaustible. The reason for this non- exhaustibility derives from the fact that the stock from which the energy flow ultimately derives is extra-terrestrial and unaffected by human behaviour. Soil structures and fertility level, aquifers (water systems) and ozone layer are the examples of the physical stock resources. Although this resources are capable of regeneration in relatively short period of time through physical as well as biological transformation process, they are also depletable and potentially exhaustible.
Plants resources are a renewable natural resource which means if they are utilized, they are regenerated. Its provides the most precious and continuous gift to the entire humanity with oxygen gas. Plant resources are sub-set of biodiversity which consist with a variety of species, subspecies, populations and genes. A list of all plants and animals in certain areas is is called biodiversity inventory. Lund (1997) defined the inventory refer to an itemised list of current assets (finished goods, components or raw material on hand).
Resources
Non- Renewable Renewable
Renewable energy flow resources
Renewable but exhaustible stock resources
Renewable biological stock resources
Renewable physical stock resources
Figure 1.1 Classification of environmental resources (adapted from Perman et al,1996)
This study is an attempt to provide an inventory of plant resources in home gardens in Peninsular Malaysia. It focuses on domesticated plants, ornamental plants, and the product, benefits or services should come from plants.
1.2 Home Gardens
A home garden is a bounded piece of land with a mixture of tended and cultivated plants on which a house is built. In the scientific and ethnobotanical literatures, home gardens are also known as house gardens, household gardens, or kitchen gardens (Vogl & Vogl., 2003). From ancient times, kitchen gardens, house gardens, or home gardens have played a fundamental role in the useful plant supply (Gispert et al., 1993).They have also been used as a source of pleasure and entertainment. A report by Camos et al. (1983) showed that in Barcelona's metropolitan area, in which more than three million people live, there are home gardens, sometimes reduced to their minimal expression and with a role in which entertainment and pleasure has more weight than the exploitation of natural resources.
Gardens or home gardens are becoming an important study area for ethnobotanists.
In the tropics of Southeast Asia, the study of home gardens as distinct ecological and
cultural entities in agriculture was initiated by a few researcher since thirty years ago (Soemarwoto 1975, 1987; Stoler 1975; Raintree 1978; Sommers 1978). These studies were
conducted not only for determination of plant species available in the home gardens but also have played an important role in biodiversity conservation, especially for conservation of local crop varieties and species germplasm (Levasseur and Olivier, 2000).
There are many types of traditional home gardens, varying in their layouts and types
(Hamilton and Hamilton, 2006). Criteria in classifying of home gardens by Kehlenbeck and Mass, (2004) can be used as a method to differentiate home gardens based on size, structure, socioeconomic value, or dominant species available in it. Although there are many systems of classification, none can be used to universally classify tropical home gardens for which many types are reported (Kehlenbeck and Mass, 2004).
A study by Ninez (1987) reported that the traditional home gardens can be classified into two ecological types, tropical and temperate, each marked by particular features in terms of structure and species composition as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3. Tropical home gardens tend to have complex vertical structures and many species with many life- forms compared to temperate home gardens which have simple vertical structures with all the plants unshaded and dominated by annual species (Huai and Hamilton, 2009). Home gardens vary in their vertical structure according to their location (e.g. more complex in the tropics), floristic composition, age and size (Kehlenbeck and Maass, 2004). Reported by De Clerck and Negrreos-Castillo (2000) can be used as an example for the different vertical layers for one type of home gardens in Mexico as shown in Table 1.1. Study by Gajaseni and Gajaseni (1999) showed four vertical layers of home gardens in Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand and Albuquerque et al.,(2005) reported that a home gardens in northeastern Brazil have only three strata. These are shown in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 respectively.
Vertical profile Height/m Species
tall tree stratum 6–12 mango, avocado, and timber trees
lower tree stratum 3–6 Citrus spp.
tall shrub stratum 1.5–3 bananas, papaya, and achiote
lower shrub stratum 0.5–1.5 annual & perennial herbaceous plants:
tomatoes, espelon, corn, ginger, cassava, and taro
herbaceous stratum ＜0.5 herbs & creepers: basil, squash, epazote, and sweet potatoes
Table 1.1 : Vertical profiles of a homegarden in Mexico (De Clerck and Negrreos-Castillo (2000)
Vertical profile Height/m Species
emergent layer ≥10 coconut, areca palm, bamboo, and teak canopy layer 5–10 mango, tamarind, durian, coral tree,
Indian trumpet flower, and plum mango understory layer 5–10 5 diverse fruit trees with a height<5m shrubs and ground cover
different species of shrubs and grasses
< 5 shrubs and ground cover different species of shrubs and grasses
Table 1.2 : Vertical profiles of a homegarden in Thailand Gajaseni and Gajaseni (1999)
Vertical profile Height/m Species
upper stratum 7–12 fruits and timbers: Schinopsis brasiliensis, Anacardium occidentale , Erythrina velutina,etc.
mid-stratum 3–7 multiple uses: Tabebuia sp.; Myracrodruon urundeuva, etc.
lower stratum 1–3 medicinal plants, fruits, and forages: Psidium guajava , Annona squamosa , Jatropha molissima, etc.
Table 1.3 : Vertical profiles of a homegarden in northeastern Brazil (Albuquerque et al.(2005)
Figure 1.2 : Ecological Profile and Production Levels of HGs : Tropical (Ninez,1987)
Figure 1.3 : Ecological Profile and Production Levels of HGs : Temperate (Ninez,1987)
The most distinguishing and important characteristic of all home gardens is their species diversity: their intimate admixture of plants of all types- herb, shrubs, vines, trees, other perennials, and so on-on the same parcel of land (Nair, 2006).
1.3 Peninsular Malaysia
Malaysia sits on the South China Sea in the centre of Southeast Asia which consists of two geographically distinct areas i.e. Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia), which is attached to the main continent, and East Malaysia, which is located on the island of Borneo. The long narrow peninsular of Peninsular Malaysia extends from latitude 1020’north to latitude 6040’ north, and from longitude 99035’east to longitude 104020’east (Saw, 2007). The Malay Peninsular is a long and slender, slightly bulbous strip of land that extends southward from mainland Southeast Asia to the equator. Its extends some 740 kilometres in length from Perlis state in the north to Johor Bahru town in the south, and about 322 kilometres in width at its widest point (Saw, 2007).
The total land area approximates 132,090 square kilometres with its coastline of nearly 1,931 kilometres, covered in many places with mangrove swamps, sand bars and sandy beaches.
Malaysia has a tropical climate that is hot and humid throughout the year. The average rainfall for the whole country reaches 250 centrimetres a year, though the amount varies among different parts of the country (Saw, 2007). Its average temperature is 27 degree celcius. The rainy seasons are very much influenced by the southwest and the northest monsoon which is start from April to October and October to February respectively.
Within Malaysian society there are ethnic Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasians , along with the indigenous people of various groups in the Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. Malaysia's population comprises 28.4 million and 53.3% are classified as Malay, 26.0% as of Chinese descent, 7.7% of Indian descent, 11.8% indigenous and 1.2% as others (Department of Statistics, 2011). The multi-racial composition of Malaysia’s population was the result of British policy to import foreign labour from India (rubber industry) and China (mining industry).
Urban and rural divisions are reinforced by ethnic diversity with agricultural areas populated primarily by ethnic Malays. Many of these Malays still live in rural areas grow rice and rubber or palm oil is the major cash crop. Ethnic Chinese dominance of commerce in cities especially on the west coast of the peninsula and a substantial part of the ethnic Indian population was brought in to work on the rubber plantations, and some are still on the rural estates. However, today some of them have become diversified with a sprinkling of entrepreneurs, intellectuals and technical professionals.
1.4 Role of Home gardens
Traditional home gardens are multi-purpose agroecosystems (Méndez et al., 2001).
Based on report by Ninez (1987), the role of home garden was summed up in the conservation and development of plant resources as follows:
(1). Historically, they have served as informal experimental sites for the domestication of plant species;
(2). They have been centers for informal mini experiments for testing new varieties and
(3). They have served as field germplasm banks.
Huai and Hamilton (2009) classified the role of homegarden into four which is:
1). Providing daily substance and economic income for the owners, 2). Ecological functioning,
3). Contributing to cultural use and 4). Domestication sites of wild plants.
In areas far from towns, home gardens function primarily as subsistence systems and may produce over 15 percent of the total food requirement (Soemarwoto &
Conway,1992). In Vietnam, home gardens supply more than 50% of vegetables, fruits, and herbs (Trinh et al., 2003).
The home gardens are also an important source of fuelwood, particularly for poor households, supplying from 40 to 80 percent of the rural need (Wiersum, 1977). It has been reported that the traditional home gardens provide 65% of the fuel to households in some parts of Indonesia. Although the contributions to daily substance are different among home gardens located in different sites with different owners, generally traditional home gardens contribute substantially towards meeting the basic subsistences needs of their owners for products and services such as food, medicines, forage, shade, and ornamentals (Blanckaert et al., 2004; Albuquerque et al., 2005).
Home gardens are typically populated by a wide variety of plants, varying from small herbs to tall trees. Karyono (1981) reported that in 56 species were found in a single home gardens in a village near Bandung, West Java, and in a hamlet of 41 households there
structures and high floristic diversity of tropical home gardens ensures an efficient use of sunlight, water, and nutrients (Huai and Hamilton 2009). As a result, its benefit to maintenance of soil fertility and soil structure and maintaining nutrient cycling (Schroth et al., 2001). Besides that, home gardens also play an important role in the conservation of indigenous and endemic plants, since such plants can be major components of home gardens in some cases (Albuquerque et al., 2005).
1.5 Problem Statement or Significance of Research
Species of plants in home gardens is often overlooked. Their contributions to the livelihood of home garden owners and conservation of the plants have never been seriously studied. Emphasis on market value plant product has caused the neglect of the plant itself.
This study is carried out to get an overview of the types of plants that are planted or grown in home gardens in Peninsular Malaysia and its application or uses among the owners.
These findings can be used as a basis for evaluating the plants for future research.
1.6 Objectives of Study
Objectives of this study are as follows:
1. to provide a comprehensive information on species of plants that are cultivated or managed in home gardens in Peninsular Malaysia;
2. to propose valuation approaches for each species of plants that are cultivated or managed in home gardens in Peninsular Malaysia.
CHAPTER TWO
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Global of Plant Resources Study in Home Gardens
Home gardens around the world often exhibit remarkable variation in composition and structure depending on the physiographic and climatic conditions of the area and a wide variety of household characteristics (Kabir and Webb, 2008 a,b). Species diversity in a home gardens can range from less than 5 to more than 100 (e.g., Vogl and Vogl-Lukasser (2003); Kabir and Webb (2008a, b). Stem density in a home gardens can vary from less than one hundred to more than several thousands per hectare (Kabir and Webb (2008a, b)).
The variety of home gardens in terms of diversity and structure are associated with a few factors including biophysical features (e.g., biogeography, proximity to forest, elevation), economic requirements (e.g., subsistence or commercial orientation of the farmers) and social responses (e.g., tradition, culture, ethnicity, previous experience, education) (Soemarwoto 1987; Kumar et al., 1994; Das and Das, 2005; Trinh et al., 2003;
Ali, 2005; Abdoellah et al., 2006; Simons and Leakey, 2004).
In Bangladesh, there are more than 20 million home gardens available and they
gardens have been providing approximately 70–90% of round wood (Hammermaster, 1981;
Khan, 2001), 65–75% saw logs, 85–90% fuelwood (Leuschner and Khaleque, 1987), and 73% of bamboo (FMP, 1992). Many Bangladeshi households has been reported are depending on home gardens as vital source for subsistence economy and self-sufficiency, owing to their diverse products (Ahmed and Rahman, 2004; Ali, 2005). However, home garden’s contribution to the household economy in southwestern Bangladesh was still at the lower extreme compared to other South and Southeast Asian home gardens.
In Southeast Asia, the study of home gardens as distinct ecological and cultural entities in agriculture was initiated in the tropics since 34 years ago (Soemarwoto, 1975, 1987; Stoler, 1975; Raintree, 1978; Sommers, 1978). Wiersum (2006) mentions that the origin of home gardening in Southeast Asia has been associated with fishing communities living in the moist tropical regions 13000 to 9000 B.C. The first written record of the home gardens in Indonesia appeared in a Javanese charter of 860 A.D (Terra, 1954). In Java, Indonesia, homegardening has been a way of life for centuries and is still critical to the local subsistence economy and food security (Kumar & Nair, 2004).
Kumar and Nair (2006) mentioned that home gardens are most popular in the tropics where largest concentration of home gardens can be found especially in South and Southeast Asia, the Pacific island, East and West Africa and Mesoamerica. Home gardens also can be found between 40 0 N and 300 S latitude (Kumar and Nair, 2006). Home gardens have also been reported are available in the Mediterranean region of Catalonia (Agelet et al.,2000) and sourthern Africa (High & Shackleton, 2000). In term of ecological distribution, Nair & Sreedharan (1986) reported that the highest concentrations of home
gardens are in humid and sub-humid tropics, but they are also common in other ecological region, especially the tropical highlands of Asia, Africa and Mesoamerica.
2.2 Diversity of Species of Home Gardens 2.2.1 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) refer to the any non-timber product that is dependant on a forest environment (Arnold & Ruiz, 1996). However, Mallet (1999) defined them as all products, with the exception of timber, that can be harvested from a forest ecosystem. A forest is a vegetation type dominated by trees; this maybe pristine natural rainforest, scrub woodland, palm savanna or plantations (Wong, 2000) and a product is anything produced or obtained as a result of some operation of work, as by generation, growth, labour, study or skill (Lund, 1997).
Historically, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were usually considered to be of little importance, a status reflected in their designation as ‘minor’ forest products (Arnold &
Ruiz, 2001). Much of their use was seen as being primarily of only local interest, and such commercial exploitation as took place was characterised as associated with lack of capital and technology, and often with exploitative use of labour (Homma, 1992). In subsistence economies and traditional forest societies the forest provides many of the essentials of life such as food, utensils, clothing, shelter, medicines and objects of spiritual or cultural significance (Wong, 2000).
Based on Arnold & Ruiz (1996), the increased attention paid to NTFPs in recent
biodiversity, carbon sequestration and other environmental functions provided by tropical forests. A second factor has been the growth in awareness that use or sale of NTFPs form important parts of the livelihood systems of very large numbers of people, outside as well as inside tropical forests. There has also been heightened commercial demand for many non-timber outputs of tropical forests such as rattan, oils, resins, pharmaceutical extracts, etc (Arnold & Ruiz (1996)).
Until recently few scholars had study the economic value of non-timber tropical forest products (eg., Dunn, 1975). In 1988 the International Tropical Timber Organization published a report calling for the rigorous study of these product (Panayotou & Ashton, 1992), and since then many researchers have conducted such valuations (eg., Peters et al., 1989; Godoy & Feaw, 1989; Padoch & Jong, 1989). Table 2.1 summarizes the survey of studies of the Net Economic value of Nontimber Tropical-Forest Products. Although NTFPs are generally defined as including animals there are only a few studies that consider both plants and animal exploitation on the same site (Gronow & Safo, 1996 ; Grossmann, 1998) or include animals in the context of an NTFP study.
Table 2.1: Survey of studies of the Net Economic value of Nontimber Tropical –Forest Products.
Adapted from Ricardo & Ruben (1992).
Location Net value (U.S.$/ha/year)
Comments
Venezuela Mudumalal Sanctuary, South India
0.75 3.00
Experimental caiman harvest
0.02 domesticated elephants/ha at U.S.
$1,500/elephant.Excludes costs of domestication and training;a 10% discount rate is assumed Ituri Forest,Zaire 3.18 to 0.50 318 kg of game/km2 of primary forest or
50kg/km2 in climax forest at U.S $1/kg.Estimate leaves out cost. Price is for prized meats
Amazon, Brazil 4.80 Gross return/ha/year for flora only Values wildlife over 1 Km2
Malaysia
Iquitos, Peru 16.00 to 22.00
flora only
Hantana, Sri Lanka 50.00 50 randomly chosen households surveyed in three villages; used contingent valuation and opportunity-cost approach; estimate excludes cost of extraction; flora only
Kalimantan, Indonesia
53.00 Net present value of cultivated rattan is U.S$
529/ha over 25 years with a real discount rate of 10%
Brazilian Amazon 59.00 Includes kernal, charcoal, and feed meal of babassu palm, unclear whether net or gross Para, Brazil 110.00 Value after selective thinning of competitors and
pruning of acai palm Veracruz, Mexico
Equadorian Amazon Jenaro Herrera, Peru
116.00 120.00 167.00
Flora only, excluding lumber and coffee Valueswildlife over 500km2
Wild camu camu only; unclear whether net or gross
Iquitos, Peru 420.00 Values the inventory in1 ha;flora only
The wide variation of net values of NTPs as shown in table above can be explained by the biological and economic diversity of the different study sites sampled, the different in the methods and assumption used, and the different product studied (Ricardo &
Ruben,1992). Padoch & Jong (1989) also agree even when studying the same goods, independent valuations conducted at nearly the same time have produced different results.
Abeygunawardena & Wickramasinghe (1991) reported that even a single plot may yield different values depending on valuation technique used.
2.2.2 Tropical Home Gardens
The domestication of natural resources involves a move from gathering in the wild on communally owned land to the deliberate cultivation of NTFPs on tenured farm land.
Plants are cultivated for self-use or income whether by small farmers for the local market or by large entrepreneurs for export. Although nearly 200 fruit crops have been cultivated in
South-East Asia, only about 100 may be considered to be economic fruits (Othman &
Suranat, 1995).
In Malaysia, the tropical rain forest is exceedingly rich and diverse. A few studied reported that a number of important tropical fruit species originate from this forest (Soegeng, 1962, Soejarto, 1965, Meijer, 1969, Jong et al., 1973, Soepadmo, 1979, Hashim, 1986, Van Welzen et al., 1988). These include the genera Artocarpus (cempedak and nangka; Moraceae), Baccaurea (rambai and tampoi; Euphorbiaceae), Citrus (limes and oranges; Rutaceae), Dimocarpus (longan and litchi; Sapindaceae) and others.
Some of the tropical fruits are native to Southeast Asia.Wild fruit trees are still found in Malaysia’s forest. However, there are a few have been brought here from other tropical countries, some of them centuries ago by traders and settlers, and are now be part of the countryside (Betty,1975). Some of the familiar came from South America including the papaya, pineapple, guava, ciku and durian belanda. India introduced some of the long- fruited mango. Jackfruits is probably native to India (Betty,1975). However, mangosteen, durian, rambutan and pamelo, and possibly most of the bananas are native in Malaysia.
Fruits trees in Malaysia can be categorized according to the length of the juvenile period which is the period between planting and first fruition. There are three categories of Malaysian fruits trees main based on their fruit production (Figure 2.1). The first category are those with the long juvenile period (7-15 years). Second category comprises fruits with an intermediate juvenile period (2-3 years) and third category for those fruit with a short juvenile period (1-2 years).
Figure 2.1: Category of economic plants in fruit production. Adopted from Othman and Suranat (1995)
Group/type of fruit
Month of the year
J F M A M J J A S O N D 1. Long juvenile
period Durian Mangosteen Langsat Cempedak Coconut 2. Intermediate juvenile period Mango
Citrus Rambutan Guava Jackfruit
3. Short juvenile period
Banana Papaya Pineapple
: Off seasons
Notes Main seasons
Figure 2.2Calender of Fruiting Seasons in Malaysia. Adopted from Othman and Suranat (1995)
Another classification for Malaysian fruit plants in shown in Figure 2.2. The first four groups are similar to earlier classification. Group 4 are lesser-known and are rare but with future economic potential. Group 5 fruits are those of subtropical and temperate- zone variety. Malaysian fruit plants can also be categorized into seasonal and non-seasonal.
Non-seasonal fruits available throughout the year, while seasonal fruits are available only once or twice a year.
Long juvenile period (7-15 years).
Examples: Durian, mangosteen, duku, langsat, jackfruit, cempedak, breadfruit, coconut, tamarind, petai etc.
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5 Category of
Economic Plants in Fruition
Intermediate juvenile period (2-3 years)
Examples: Mango, citrus, rambutan, pulasan, guava, etc.
Sub-tropical and temperate-zone variety.
Examples: Longan, peach, Japanese apricot,grape, apple,etc.
Short juvenile period (1-2 years
Examples: Pineapple, banana, papaya, water-melon, musk-melon, etc.
Lesser-known/rare fruits with future economic potential.
Examples: Avocado, cashew, salak and wild fruit such as tampoi, perah,etc.
2.2.3 Medicinal Plants
Medicinal plants are either sold or used in traditional medicine. The latter may or may not attract the market price (David & Seema, 1993). In developed countries, perhaps 25% of all medical drugs are based on plants and plant derivatives. In developing countries the proportion is closer to 75% (Principe, 1991). In Malaysia, more than 20,000 species of angiosperms and 600 species of ferns which 1,082 species (15%) and 76 species (13%), respectively, are reported to have medicinal properties (Mansor, 2005). The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that about 80% of the population in developing countries relies chiefly on traditional medicine for their health care needs, of which a major portion involves the use of plant extracts (Azizol & Jamaludin, 1995).
There are about 1300 medicinal plant products registered by the Ministry of Health of Malaysia and are available in market (Kulip, 2003). Chew et al., (2009) studied antioxidant properties of three species from the Leguminosae family in Malaysia, namely Bauhinia kockiana, Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Cassia surattensis. These plants have been used traditionally by local communities for medicinal purpose. B. kockiana is a tropical vine which is also cultivated as a garden ornamental plant are used by the Kelabit ethnic group in Sarawak to treat gonorrhoea.The bark and root are also used traditionally to treat toothache (Ong, 2006).C. pulcherrima or commonly known as peacock flower is widely grown in both tropical and subtropical area used to cure bad cough, asthma and sores (Chew et al., 2009). C. surattensis, also known locally as bushy cassia is consumed orally to cure sore throat, cough and constipation by the Chinese (Chew et al., 2009).
Examples of Malaysian medicinal plants are shown in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2 : Some commonly used medicinal plants[Taken from Burkill (1996); Perry & Metzer (1980)]
Species Local name Common use(s)
Eurycoma longifolia Jack Tongkat Ali Health tonic
Labisia pumila Kacip Fatimah Post-partum preparation
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Pegaga Health tonic
Curcuma xanthorizza Temu lawak Jamu
Curcuma domistica Kunyit Cosmetic, food additive
Cassia alata L. Gelenggang Antiseptic
2.2.4 Ornamental Plants
Ornamental plants are plants which are grown for their aesthetic quality.
Ornamental plants with beautiful flowers and leaves in graceful forms and shapes are planted indoors as well as in the home gardens.
2.3 Economic Valuation of Plant Resources
In the last 30 years or so, valuation of environmental services and change has become one of the most significant and fastest evolving areas of research in environmental and ecological economics (Turner et al., 2003). Environmental valuation techniques can provide useful evidence to support such policies by quantifying the economic value associated with the protection of biological resources (Christie et al.,2006). Although considered renewable resources, plant resources are can be exhausted if they are not properly managed.
The concept of total economic value is now generally recognized as being the most suitable framework guiding environmental economic valuation as shown in Figure 2.3. The total economic value (TEV) is an aggregate of the use values and non-use values. This is represented by the following formula
TEV = UV +NUV = [DUV + IUV + OP] + [EV + BV] whereby UV represents used value,
NUV represents non-use value, DUV represents direct use value, IUV represents indirect use value, OP represents option value, EV represents existence value, and BV represents bequest value.
Direct Use Values can be further divided into consumptive uses and non consumption uses. Consumptive uses could be commercial and industrial forest products such as timber, fuel wood for sale, fruits, medicine, charcoal, rattan, animals and also be non-market domestic products such as fire wood for subsistence use. Non-consumptive use values include values of functions such as ecotourism, recreation, science, education and the like.
Indirect use values are associated with environmental protection, water shed protection, nutrient recycling, soil fertility agricultural productivity, gas exchange, contribution to climate stabilization, habitat and protection of biodiversity, aesthetic,
future. This is called Option Values. Existence value is the intrinsic values placed by nonusers on environmental assets purely for its existence without any intention of using it directly in the future. Bequest value is the value that people derive from knowing that the forest is passed on to the future generations. People may value forest as a bequest to their children. All these are summarized in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 : Relation between plant resources utilization and Total Economic Value for environmental assessment
OECD (2001) also recognises the importance of measuring the economic value of biodiversity and identifies a wide range of uses for such values, including demonstrating the value of biodiversity, in targeting biodiversity protection within scarce budgets, and in
Bequest Value
Existence Value Total Economic Value
Use value Non- Use Value
Indirect Use Value
Direct Use Values
Option Value
Consumptive direct use value
Non-consumptive direct use value
Plant resource utilization
determining damages for loss of biodiversity in liability regimes. Policy makers often assume that tropical forests have no economic value unless they are logged or farmed (Hecht et al., 1988). Besides timber, tropical forests produce food, construction materials, medicinal plants, fodder, and firewood, all of which villagers use daily.
However, modern science and governments overlooked the importance of this non- wood forest wealth for so long. This is because most of these products are used mainly for rural subsistence or local markets. Chandrasekharan (1994) reported that these products often go unrecorded in official statistics, which focus on nationally traded goods. Most of the modern government administration has divided these products among forestry, agriculture and horticulture, statistics do not recognize even nationally and internationally important non-wood forest commodities as originating from the forest. The lack of clear definition between agriculture and forestry also has created a large blind spot in the way we reckon our dependence on forests.
A study by Toledo et al., (1992) showed that forests produce many more types of products than wood products particularly in some tropical forests. However, modern forestry has favoured timber and large-scale enterprises, and has generally regarded non- wood products as incidental. Arnold et al., (1994) reported that small-scale forest-based enterprises in Zimbabwe, which mostly are based on NWFPs, employed 237,000 people in 1991, compared to 16,000 employed in conventional forestry and forest industries for the same year (Arnold et al., 1994).
Tropical forests provide a wide variety of services to humankind (Repetto, 1988;
shifted from temperate to tropical forests and that, in most developing countries today, deforestation is accelerating. Deforestation results from a combination of increasing population pressure, poor land use practices, and national economic policy and development. Commonly, forest loss is mainly due to logging activities and forest clearance for other land-use purposes, such as agriculture, mining, resettlement, agricultural plantations and shifting cultivation.
Economic techniques have long been used to evaluate the worth of land and resources, and the resulting information has been an important determinant in how funds, land, natural products and other resources are allocated and used. In recent years, scholars have tried to valuate the economic importance and sustainability of local extraction activities in order to adjust the market failures and search for ways to include the local economy of forest products in land-use planning (Broekhoven, 1996; Hedge et al., 1996;
Melnyk & Bell, 1996; Olsen, 1997).
2.4 Valuation Techniques
Although methods for valuing environmental goods and services began to develop as far back as the 1970s, they only began to enter mainstream environmental economics and be widely applied in the late 1980s. In general, there are three main types of value measures that can be used to estimate the values of forests: direct market prices, indirect market prices, and non-market estimates of values (Kengen, 1997).
The first measure involves use of the prevailing market prices of goods and services traded in the market. The non-market measure of value attempts to estimate the willingness
hypothetical conditions. In most applications individuals are asked to provide their willingness to pay (WTP) or willingness to accept (WTA) for specified increases or decreases in the quantity or quality of a non-market good or service (Bedru et al., 2006).
Since the constructed market is hypothetical, this method requires individuals to ‘state’
their preferences for the non-marketed good or service and is thus called stated preference method. Values provided by this method are hypothetical in that the respondents are assumed to behave as if there were a real market (Boxall & Beckley, 2002).
However, several specific valuation techniques have been developed to derive values for particular forest functions. The most common valuation technique as reported by Bedru et al., (2006) are Market Prices Method, Efficiency (Shadow) Price Method, Production Function Method, Related/Substitute Good Method, and Cost Based Method.
a) Market Prices Method
It uses of the prevailing market prices for goods and services traded in the domestic or international markets. Empirical data in this method are collected through, market survey, published economic statistics and direct observation.
b) Efficiency (Shadow) Price Method
It uses adjusted prices for market imperfections and policy distortions or for non-marketed goods.
c) Production Function Method
In this method estimation of the value of non-marketed resource or ecological
function in terms of changes in economic activity by modeling the physical contribution of the resource function to economic output.
d) Related/Substitute Good Method
This method use of information about the relationship between a non-marketed good or service and a marketed product to infer value.
e) Cost based method:
This method uses variants of a costbased approach such as replacement cost, relocation cost, preventive expenditure, damage costs avoided, and opportunity cost to estimate environmental functions based on the assumption that the cost of maintaining an environmental benefit is a reasonable estimate of its value.
The three major measures of value (direct market prices, indirect market prices, and non-market estimates) and the suggested appropriate valuation techniques for estimating the values are outlined in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Valuation approaches in relation to the type of forest goods and services (adapted from Kengen (1997)
Method Types Techniques Application examples
1. Direct market prices
Market surveys, use of statistics
Use of recall interviews of household heads with lists of forest products harvested or use of local or national statistics on values of some forest products.
Value of forest products such as fuel wood (own-consumed or sold), wild fruits, household furniture, and farm implements can be elicited from household‘s own-reported values as these products are traded in local markets.
Value of forests as source of firewood can be estimated by the opportunity costs of time and effort required for the journey to collect firewood from the distant areas because of the depletion of forest resources for use as fuelwood.
Direct observation
Direct observation of some specific forest products collected by households by a researcher.
2. Indirect Market prices (value inferred from market prices of other goods or services
Residual values Use of market prices for final goods and intermediate inputs plus some measure of profit to arrive at residual value.
Stumpage value of timber is derived by looking at market prices for finished lumber and subtracting costs from harvesting through processing to lumber sale.
Related goods value (surrogate prices)
Use of market prices for close substitutes as a proxy measure of value for the unpriced good or service being valued.
The value of fuelwood used for domestic purposes can be estimated with purchased fuelwood.
Cost-based values Use of market prices(costs) for maintaining environmental benefits in the absence of forests.
The value of erosion mitigation function of exclosures can be estimated by the cost of preventing sediment filling in a dam, or loss of NPK6 from a crop fields which would be recovered by applying artificial fertilizer.
value of production increases as a measure of input
Use of market prices of production increases to provide a proxy measures of the value of one or a set of inputs.
Increased market value of crop production with a windbreak over what it would have been without a windbreak provides a proxy minimum gross value for the windbreak. Associated costs of the windbreak are then subtracted to arrive at net value.
Opportunity cost (shadow price)
Use of market prices for the best alternative foregone provides a measure of the minimum value for a good or service.
The minimum value of a wilderness park is estimated on the basis of market price value of the goods and/or services foregone (e.g. timber, mineral, grazing).
Travel costs as the measure of value of an area, facility or activity
Use of travel costs incurred by individuals or groups to derive the estimates of the value of an area, facility, or activity.
Direct observation of some specific forest products collected by households by a researcher.
Contingent valuation or surveys of stakeholders' WTP for a given event, area, facility, activity or
WTA a monetary reward for the loss of a given
environmental amenity.
3. Non- market value estimates
None Value of a certain wildlife
population is inferred from a survey of environmentalists' willingness to pay to save the population.
2.5 Conservation and Plant Resources Utilization Through Biotechnological Means
The harvesting and consumption of plant products from natural forests for food, medicine and others is known to account for a large proportion of the livelihood of people living close to such habitats (Dovie et al., 2002, Ticktin, 2005). Recently, it has been recognized that under-valuation or absence of valuation of the products and services of forests is one of the factors for the degradation of forest resources. Estimating the values of forests and understanding how plant resource use interacts with the incomes and welfare of rural households is a key step towards sustainable use and management of
forests (Bedru et al., 2006).
Not surprisingly, biotechnology as understood today as most powerful and practical of all branches of science can be used for conservation purpose of the plant resources. All living things including the plant resources encoded with the genes which varied them between each species in community. Plant tissue and cell culture as an effective biotechnology tool to conserve plant genes. Its use of small units (cells and tissues) without loosing the mother plant, to produce large number of faithful copies of plants.Research and development in biotechnology for conservation and utilization of plant resources can be done through a few aspect as shown on Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Biotechnology aspect in conservation and utilization of plant resources (Jamadon et al., 2007)
Purpose Biotechnology Aspect
Conservation through micropropagation of rare, endangered and economically important plants.
Plant Tissue Culture
In vitro production and supply of raw materials for drug development and production of plant/root-specific high value, low volume compounds.
Health-care Biotechnology
Enhancement of genetic diversity in species having narrow genetic
base.
DNA manipulation
Breeding and improvement of floricultural plants for commercial significance.
DNA manipulation Bioprospecting (chemical and gene
prospecting) of indigenous plants of established therapeutic value.
Bioprospecting, Biochemical
Isolation, characterization and appropriate use of genes for crop improvement.
DNA manipulation
In Malaysia, the application of biotechnology for conservation of the plant resources maybe still in developing. However, conservation of tropical fruits has been given special emphasis (Jamadon et al.,2007). The Field Genebank was established in MARDI research station for collection involving coconut, coffee, root and tubers, medicinal plants, spices and beverages and ulam as shown in Table 2.5. Collection of germplasm also involving by others agencies (Table 2.6)
Table 2.5: Germplasm collection conserved in MARDI field genebank
No. Crops Location (Research station) No. of accessions
1. Coconut Hilir Perak 45
2. Coffee Kluang 425
3. Roots and Tubers Serdang 800*
4. Medicinal plants Cameron Highlands Jerangau
62 3,377
5. Spices and baverages Kluang 300
6. Ulam Jerangau
Seberang Perai
78 60
* Estimates
Table 2.6: Ex-situ conservation of indigenous fruit species maintained at various institutions in Malaysia (Field genebank/arboretum) (Taken from Jamadon et al., 2007)
Institution Location (Field Genebank/arboretum
No. of species No. of accessions
MARDI Various station 165 3,757*
DOA, Pen. Malaysia Serdang Hulu Panka
17 110
1,000 235 DOA, Sabah Various agricultural
research station
204 n.a
DOA, Sarawak Bintulu Agriculture Park
48 60
DOA, Sarawak Betong Layar Station 54 n.a
FRIM Kepong 100 816
UPM Serdang 36 239
UKM Bangi 38 n.a
UM Rimba Ilmu Petaling
Jaya
71 207
* : Inclusive of over 1,000 accessions of traditional cultivar and land races involving 14 major fruits species
CHAPTER THREE
3 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Location of home gardens visited during this study
A total of 94 home gardens located in 90 villages in Peninsular Malaysia and Pangkor Island were surveyed during the months of June until December of 2008. The localities of the villages are shown in Figures 3.1 to Figure 3.9. The home gardens that were surveyed were selected arbitrary. The owners comprise of various ethnic groups such as Malays, Chinese, Indian, Portuguese and the aboringines (Orang Asli). More detailed information of each homed garden is shown in Appendix 1.
Figure 3.1 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Perlis and Kedah showing the sites of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.2 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Perak showing the sites of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.3 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Selangor showing the sites of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.4 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Negeri Sembilan showing the location of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.5 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Melaka showing the loation of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.6 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Johor showing the location of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.7 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Pahang showing the location of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.8 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Terengganu showing the location of home gardens that were visited during this study
Figure 3.9 : Maps of Peninsular Malaysia (inset) and Kelantan showing the location of home gardens that were visited during this study
3.2 Home Gardens Survey
In this study, survey of home gardens involved collecting information on plant cultivated, managed, and used by their owners. A home garden in this study is defined as a bounded piece of land with a mixture of tended and cultivated plants on which a house is built. Demarcation of the home gardens boundary was determined through guidance of home gardens owners during semi-structure interviews. Plants that were tended or cultivated in home gardens were distinguished from other plants based on information provided by home garden owners. This study was carried through opportunistic surveys of home gardens in Peninsular Malaysia. Information on plant resource of each home garden was gathered through semi-structured interviews with the owners and floristic inspection of home gardens. Respondents were asked a set of questions and their response were recorded on a voice recorder or on written on a field diary. All these were later transcribed and tabulated.
3.3 Classification of plant resource in home gardens
Species of plants that were encountered during the survey are categorised according to their uses. The categories of uses are food and drinks, medicinal, ornamental, spice and flavor, handicraft, dye and multiple uses.
3.4 Valuation Techniques for Plant Resources in Home Gardens
Valuation approaches for each species encountered during this study were proposed.
Valuation approaches proposed were market-based, substitute good and contingent valuation. Market-based approach is a technique used based on the observation of the
Through markets, economists are able to measure an individual’s willingness to pay to acquire or preserve the value of the plant resources. Substitute good is a technique used to value the plant resources which are non-marketed or which are used directly by the harvester by comparing the market price of similar goods or the value of the next alternative products. Contigent valuation is also a method of estimating the value of non market of the plant resources. These values are generally measured based on the willingness to pay for the benefit obtained from the plant resources or the willingness to accept compensation for benefit lost.
CHAPTER FOUR
4 RESULT
4.1 Home Gardens Survey
A list of plants species that were encountered during this study and their respective information are shown in Table 4.1. Localities were enumerated and detailed information of each of them are shown in Appendix 1. Examples for semi-structured interviews are shown in Appendix 2.
A total of 120 species of plants were encountered of which food plants namely Cocus nucifera L., Nephelium lappaceum L., Musa paradisiacal L., Durio zibethinus Murr and Mangifera indica L were found in most of the home gardens. The most common plant family in term of the number of species it represented was Leguminosae (9 species). This was followed by Zingiberaceae (7 species), Sapindaceae (6 species) and Malvaceae (6 species), Myrtaceae (5 species), Lamiaceae (5 species), Anacardiaceae (5 species), Asteraceae (4 species), Moraceae (4 species), Rutaceae (4 species), Arecaceae (3 species), Cucurbitaceae (3 species), Euphorbiaceae (3 species), Meliaceae (3 species), Rubiaceae (3 species), Amaranthaceae (2 species), Annonaceae (2 species), Apocynaceae (2 species), Convolvulaceae (2 species), Lythraceae (2 species), Pandanaceae (2 species), Piperaceae (2 species), Poaceae (2 species) and Solanaceae (2 species). Families represented by only one
Aspleniaceae, Balsaminaceae, Bignoniaceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, Caricaceae, Clusiaceae, Crassulaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Geraniaceae, Lecythidaceae, Leguminosae, Mackinlayaceae, Melastomataceae, Moringaceae, Musaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Oleaceae, Oxalidaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Polygonaceae, Polypodiaceae, Rosaceae, Sapotaceae, Simaroubaceae, and Verbenaceae. The average number of species per home gardens was range in between 3 to 20 species (refer Appendix 1)
Table 4.1 List of plants found in home gardens
No. Species (in alphabetical order)
Local name Locality/localities Uses and parts used (in brackets)
Number of localities with the species 1. Abelmoschus esculentus
(L.) Moench [Malvaceae] Bendi 15,21,75,85,87
Food (Fruit) 5
2. Acalypha indica L.
[Euphorbiaceae]
Kucing
galak 72 Medicinal
(Leaves)
1 3. Acorus calamus L.
[Acoraceae] Delingau 15
Medicinal (Root) 1 4. Allamanda cathartica L.
[Apocynaceae] Bunga
loceng 16,30 Ornamental 2
5. Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng [Amaryllidaceae]
Kucai 12,63
Food (Leaves) 2
6. Amaranthus gangeticus
Linn [Amaranthaceae] Bayam 15,21,71,72
Food 4
7. Anacardium occidentale
L. [Anacardiaceae] Gajus 18,71 Food (Fruit) 2
8. Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. [Bromeliaceae]
Nanas
7,8,12,13,15,19,21, 23,31,39,45,46,54, 55,65,76,82,84,85, 88,91
Food (Fruit)
21
9. Annona muricata L.
[Annonaceae]
Durian
Belanda 20,69,81,84,85,90
Food
(Fruit),Medicinal (Leaves)
6
10. Annona squamosa
L.[Annonaceae] Nona 48,70,79,83 Food (Fruit) 4
11. Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I. C. Nielsen [Leguminosae]
Jering 12,14,16,23,30,42, 43,44,45,46,71,73,
84,87,88,91 Food (Fruit)
16
12. Areca catechu L.
[Arecaceae]
Pinang
8,16,19,25,37,46,5 6,60,61,62,63,64,6 5,66,67,71,72,74, 90
Medicinal (Root), Food (Fruit)
19
13. Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg [Moraceae]
Sukun 14,40
Food (Fruit)
2 14. Artocarpus heterophyllus
Lam.[ Moraceae]
Nangka
5,7,8,12,14,15,16,2 3,25,26,29,31,34,3 6,38,46,55,56,59,6 0,61,65,66,70,71,7 3,74,76,81,82,85,8 9,90,95
Food (Fruit)) 34
15. Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr.
[Moraceae]
Cempedak
4,14,18,26,31,37,3 8,43,56,61,65,66,6
9,73,77,81,90 Food (Fruit) 17 16. Asplenium nidus L.
[Aspleniaceae]
Pokok Paku langsuir
2,18 Ornamental
2 17.
Averrhoa bilimbi
L.[Oxalidaceae] Belimbing buluh
5,12,17,22,23,24,5 6,66,69,71,75,76,8 0,81
Food (Fruit)
14
18. Azadirachta indica A.
Juss. [Meliaceae] Neem/ daun semambu 22
Food
(Fruit)/Medicinal (Leaves)
1 19. Baccaurea motleyana
Hook. f. [Phyllanthaceae]
Rambai
12,39,43,61,87,89, 93
Food (Fruit)/
Medicinal (Leaves)
7
20. Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Roxb.
[Lecythidaceae]
Putat
19,66 Food (Fruit) 2
21. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.
[Cucurbitaceae] Kundur 15
Food (Fruit)
1 22. Bouea oppositifolia
(Roxb.) Meisn.
[Anacardiaceae] Kundang 33,84 Food (Fruit)
2 23. Bougainvillea spectabilis
Willd. [Nyctaginaceae]
Bunga kertas
5,8,12,14,16,17,18, 23,24,25,26,40,50, 52,55,56,65,67,78, 82,83,85, 93,94
Ornamental 24
24. Capsicum frutescens L.
[Solanaceae]
Cili padi
7,14,17,24,25,36,4 3,45,46,47,54,61,6 8,71,74,76,81,82,8 5,87,91,92, 93
Spice (Fruit)
23 25.
Carica papaya L.
[Caricaceae] Betik
2,5,9,11,12,15,20,2 3,25,36,37,40,46,4 8,49,52,54,55,56,5 8,61,63,66,67,70,7 1,73,74,77,81,82, 87,90,91,93,95
Food (Fruit)
36
26. Cassia alata L.
[Leguminosae] Gelenggang 5,12,32,44 Medicinal
(Leaves) 4
27. Ceiba pentandra (L.) 9,10,25,31,39,76,
28. Celosia argentea L.
[Amaranthaceae]
Balung
ayam 63,68,73 Ornamental 3
29. Centella asiatica (L.)
Urb. [Mackinlayaceae] Pegaga
21,23,75,95
Food
(Leaves)/Medicin al (Leaves)
4
30. Citrus hystrix DC.
[Rutaceae] Limau purut
15,16,65,68,70,75,
81, 82,84,85,86 Food (Fruit)
11 31. Citrus maxima (Burm. f.)
Merr. [Rutaceae] Limau Bali 5,9,60,82,87,94 Food (Fruit)
6 32. Citrus aurantifolia
(Christm.) [Rutaceae]
Limau nipis
5,7,8,12,14,15,17, 20,21,24,35,36,39, 41,47,52,56,58,60, 62,64,65,67,72,73, 83,88,92, 95
Food (Fruit)
29
33. Clerodendron paniculatum L.
[Verbenaceae] Pepanggil 12,36
Medicinal (Leaves)
2
34. Cocos nucifera L.
[Arecaceae]
Kelapa
2,5,8,9,11,12,14, 15,16,18,19,20,24, 25,26,34,36,37,40, 44,45,46,48,52,55, 56,57,59,61,62,64, 65,67,69,71,72,73, 74,76,77,79,81,82, 84,85,86,87,88,89, 90, 92,93,94
Food
(Fruit)/Handicraft (Leaves)
53
35. Codiaeum variegaantum (L.) A. Juss.
[Euphorbiaceae] Puding
2,5,8,14,19,55,62,6
4,67,73 Ornamental
10
36. Coffea arabica L.
[Rubiaceae] Kopi 12,34,61,62,63 Food (Fruit)
5 37. Coleus blumei Benth.
[Lamiaceae]
Ati-ati 5,12,35,45,71,86
Medicinal (Leaves)
6 38. Colocasia esculenta (L.)
Schott [Araceae] Keladi Cina 12,21,40,64,81,88
Food (Leaves and tuber)
6 39. Cosmos caudatus Kunth
[Asteraceae] Ulam Raja
12,16,25,46,63,74,
90 Food (Leaves)
7 40. Cucurbita
moschata Duchesne
[Cucurbitaceae] Labu kuning
5,8,39,46,47,62,63,
95 Food (Fruit)
8
41. Curcuma domestica Valeton [Zingiberaceae]
Kunyit
8,15,17,19,23,24, 25,37,42,44,47,53, 58,59,61,62,63,65, 67,68,71,72,74,76, 77,78,82,83,85,87,
92 Spice (Rhizomes)
31
42. Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. [Zingiberaceae]
Temu lawak 67
Medicinal (Leaves)
1 43. Cymbopogen citratus
(DC.) Stapf [Poaceae]
Serai
7,8,12,16,19,24,25, 36,39,40,42,44,45, 46,47,59,60,61,63, 64,65,6
