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Population Ecology of Crocodylus porosus at Kuching Wetlands National Park, Human-Crocodile Conflict and Management Plan for Crocodile in Sarawak,

2016-2020, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)

Engkamat Lading

A thesis submitted

In fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Animal Ecology)

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2020

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the research entitled “Population Ecology of Crocodylus porosus at Kuching Wetlands National Park, Human-Crocodile Conflict and Management Plan for Crocodile in Sarawak, 2016-2020, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)” is my original work. I have not copied from any other students’ work or from any sources except where due reference or acknowledgement is made explicitly in the text, nor has any part been written for me by another person. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

………

Signature

Name: Engkamat Lading

Matric No.: 09011431

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Date : 17 January 2020

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Indraneil Das, for his valuable advice, guidance, assistance and support throughout the study. His criticism, professionalism, knowledge, experience, friendship and hospitality have inspired me and gave me all the strength to complete the research project.

My deepest gratitude is also extended to Prof. Dr. Andrew Alek Tuen, former Director of the Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (IBEC), who is my co-supervisor in the project, for his suggestions, encouragement and guidance for me to undertake the study with UNIMAS prior to the commencement of the research project. Without his encouragement and guidance, the study might not have been done.

My sincere thank goes to Prof. Dr. Lee Nyanti, another co-supervisor to the study, for his advice and encouragement throughout the project, and to Dr. Jongkar Grinang for his help in data analysis and identification of crustacean species in crocodile diet. I would like to extend my thanks to the present Director of IBEC, Prof. Dr. Gabriel Tonga Noweg for his important support to the project.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the former Directors of the Forest Department, namely Datu Haji Len Taliff Salleh, Datu Haji Ali b. Yusop and Tuan Haji Sapuan Ahmad for their kind approval and support to the project. Without their approval, the research project would not have materialized.

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I am also indebted to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), Malaysia for the financial support given to the project, particularly for acquisition of field equipment, which includes outboard engine, fuel and travelling allowances of our field staff involved in the project.

To all our field staff who have involved in the project, I am really grateful and thankful to all of you. These include Mr. Micheal Tupong, Mr. Nixon Grang, Ms. Dayang Nuriza, Ms. Nur Afiza, Ms. Chombi, Mr. Rodgers, Mr. Munau Jawa, Mr. Mohidin Morni, Mr. Ramon Tuton, Mr. Kuye, Mr. Latiff Lay, Mr. Sam Akhbar Jobeli, Mr. Jeffri, Mr. Wan, Mr. Hossen and Mr. Goswin. Thank you so much for your commitment to the project.

My thanks also extended to local villagers in the vicinity of the study sites, particularly Mr. Abol of Telaga Air and Mr. Sudin and family of Kpg. Salak, who have kindly providing us a place to stay and assistance during the entire research period. Thank you also to Mr. Bujang Abong and sons of Kpg. Bako for their courage and skill in catching a number of juvenile crocodiles for dietary study.Your contributions have made our risky job much easier.

My heartfelt appreciation also goes to my beloved family for all their patience, understanding and moral support given to me until the completion of the project. My son, Dudang (Danny), who managed to join us in the surveys, knows well how hard life is without going to bed. Thanks to all of you for being supportive and thoughtful of what I am doing. You have given me the strength and faith throughout the research project.

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ABSTRACT

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The Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is one of the world’s most well-known crocodile species, as it is one of the largest of present-day reptiles, and a macro-predator of large mammals.

It inhabits both marine and freshwater habitats. Crocodiles are a living link with the dinosaur- like reptiles of prehistoric times and are the nearest living relatives of birds, and have been in existence for the past 200 million years. Crocodiles loom large in human imagination and perceptions amongst many local communities in Sarawak. Without a better understanding on the nature, biology and ecology of crocodiles, these perceptions can create antagonistic attitude towards the species. Better understanding of crocodiles would also allow improved management of the species. Estuarine Crocodile has been widely studied elsewhere, but in Sarawak, Malaysia, have been limited. In Sarawak, the species is protected under Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998 and has been down-listed to CITES Appendix II, allowing trade of the species taken from the wild. Thus a study on ecology of the species in Kuching Wetland National Park (KWNP), an analysis on possible factors that lead to increase in Human-Crocodile Conflict in Sarawak and the introduction of a Management Plan for the species within the State for a period from 2016 until 2020 were conducted. The study was aimed at investigating its habitat use within the Park, to test for effect of forest cover, tidal and lunar cycles on its activities, abundance and distribution within the area. The study also aimed to determine population structure and dietary preference of the species, particularly juveniles. On the other hand, the aims of the Human-Crocodile Conflict analysis are to identify factors associated with attacks, and to address the issues while the introduction of the management plan aims to reduce conflict, guiding the Government and the general public on sustainable management of crocodile and assure returns for local communities and the State of Sarawak

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from commercialization of the species. The study shows that all four size classes of the Estuarine Crocodiles inhabit the Park all year round, with a peak of its breeding season in the months of August and September, indicating that KWNP is of Type-I habitat for the species. Clearing of mangrove forests along Sungai Lemidin Besar and Sungai Lemidin Kecil affects distribution, abundance and activities of hatchlings along the rivers, as the area could no longer support food supplies for hatchlings and nesting materials for adults. Conversely, the absence of forest cover and vegetation do not affect activities of adult crocodiles. Activity pattern of the species in KWNP was not significantly affected by lunar cycles, though adults seemed to be more wary towards humans during bright moon-lit nights. Tide levels also did not seem to affect activities of all size classes of the species. The study also shows that Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP were not evenly distributed along rivers, but tend to congregate at parts of the Park, presumably with greater food sources and forest cover. Analysis on Human-Crocodile Conflict shows that most of the attacks over the last 23 years were associated with activities of its victims such as bathing, wading or fishing in rivers during late afternoons or at dusk. Though Estuarine Crocodiles are predators and opportunistic feeders, the attacks that occur at dusk might be due to mistaken identity for monkeys. The implementation of the management plan for crocodile in Sarawak has the potential to reduce the rate of crocodile attacks on humans while at the same time would ensure sustainable management of the species in the State.

Keyword: Macro-predator, antagonistic attitude, prehistoric time, habitat, lunar cycle

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Ekologi Populasi Buaya Katak, Crocodylus porosus di Taman Negara Kuching Wetlands (KWNP), Konfliks Manusia-Buaya di Sarawak dan Pelan Pengurusan untuk Buaya di

Sarawak, 2016-2020, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)

ABSTRAK

Buaya katak (Crocodylus porosus) adalah antara spesies buaya yang amat dikenali di dunia sebagai haiwan reptilia yang terbesar pada hari ini yang merupakan pemangsa-makro haiwan- haiwan mamalia yang bersaiz besar. Spesies ini mendiami habitat air masin, air tawar dan darat.

Buaya, yang telah wujud sejak 200 juta tahun yang lalu, mempunyai pertalian dengan haiwan reptilia yang menyerupai dinosur pada zaman silam dan juga dengan spesies burung. Buaya sering menjadi igauan ngeri yang menimbulkan pandangan negatif di kalangan kebanyakan masyarakat tempatan di Sarawak. Tanpa pengetahuan tentang biologi dan ekologi buaya, pandangan negatif tersebut boleh menimbulkan sikap antagonistik terhadap spesies ini.

Pengetahuan tentang biologi dan ekologi buaya membolehkan pengurusan yang lebih baik untuk spesies ini dan dapat mengurangkan konflik Manusia-Buaya. Banyak kajian telah dijalankan terhadap buaya katak di dunia tetapi di Sarawak kajian sedemikian amat terhad. Di Sarawak buaya katak adalah terlinding di bawah Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998 dan disenaraikan dalam Appendiks II, CITES, membolehkan pemburuan komersial dilakukan terhadap spesies ini.

Oleh yang sedemikian, satu kajian ekologi terhadap buaya katak di KWNP dijalankan untuk menentukan penggunaan habitat, kesan litupan hutan, kesan air pasang-surut dan kesan kitaran lunar terhadap aktiviti, kelimpahan dan taburan spesies tersebut di KWNP. Kajian tersebut juga bertujuan untuk menentukan struktur populasi dan jenis pemakanan anak-anak buaya di KWNP.

Analisis berkenaan Konfliks Manusia-Buaya di Sarawak bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti punca serangan tersebut demi membolehkan serangan dibendung dimasa yang akan datang.

Pengenalan pelan pengurusan buaya pada kajian ini

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pula bertujuan untuk memberi panduan kepada kerajaan serta orang awam untuk melakukan pengurusan buaya secara mampan, pada masa yang sama mengurangkan konflik tersebut di masa yang akan datang. Kajian ini menunjukkan KWNP menampung kesemua empat saiz kelas buaya katak disepanjang tahun, dengan kemuncak pembiakan berlaku pada bulan Ogos dan September, menunjukkan KWNP adalah ‘Type-I Habitat’ untuk spesies tersebut. Pembersihan hutan di Sungai Lemidin Besar dan Sungai Lemidin Kecil telah menjejaskan taburan, kelimpahan dan aktiviti anak-anak buaya di kawasan tersebut, mungkin disebabkan kurangnya habitat untuk membekalkan makanan untuk anak-anak buaya disamping tiada tempat untuk bertelur.

Sebaliknya, ketiadaan litupan hutan tidak menjejaskan aktiviti buaya katak dewasa. Tidak seperti kebanyakan spesies lain, kitaran lunar tidak menjejaskan aktiviti buaya katak di KWNP walaupun buaya dewasa menjadi lebih liar semasa terang bulan diwaktu malam. Aktiviti buaya katak juga tidak terjejas oleh air pasang-surut. Taburan buaya katak disepanjang sungai-sungai di KWNP didapati tidak seragam dan lebih banyak tertumpu di bahagian sungai yang mempunyai banyak sumber makanan dan litupan hutan.

Kata kunci: Pemangsa-makro, sikap antagonistic, zaman silam, habitat, kitaran lunar

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

ABSTRACT iv

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Objectives 2

1.3 Problem statements 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): Evolution 4

2.2 Population status of Estuarine Crocodile in Sarawak 6

2.3 Biology of Estuarine Crocodile 7

2.4 Distribution, Habitat Selection and Threats 11

2.5 Conservation Status and Legislation Related to Protection in Sarawak 14

2.6 Previous Studies on Estuarine Crocodiles in Sarawak 17

CHAPTER 3: STUDY AREA AND GENERAL METHODS 21

3.1 The Study Site 21

3.1.1 Native Priviledges 21

3.1.2 Other Activities on Site 22

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3.1.3 Demarcation of Study Site 22

3.1.4 Climate 24

3.1.5 Drainage 24

3.1.6 Vegetation and Habitats 25

3.1.7 Reptile, Mammal and Bird Faunas 25

3.1.8 Human Settlement and Activities 26

3.2 Field Sampling Methods 26

3.2.1 Spotlight Counts 26

3.2.2 Palpation for Stomach Contents 28

3.2.3 Water Sampling 29

3.2.4 Laboratory Methods 29

3.3 Statistical Analyses 30

CHAPTER 4: EFFECTS OF LUNAR CYCLES, TIDAL CONDITIONS AND 31 FOREST COVER

4.1 Effect of Lunar Cycles 31

4.1.1 Introduction 31

4.1.2 Methodology 31

4.1.3 Results 32

4.1.4 Discussion and Conclusions 34

4.2 Effect of Tidal Conditions 35

4.2.1 Introduction 35

4.2.2 Methodology 36

4.2.3 Results 37

4.2.4 Discussion and Conclusions 39

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4.3 Effect of Forest Cover 39

4.3.1 Introduction 39

4.3.2 Methodology 40

4.3.3 Results 41

4.3.4 Discussion and Conclusions 42

CHAPTER 5: POPULATION ECOLOGY 45

5.1 Introduction 45

5.2 Description of Population Structure 49

5.2.1 Methodology 49

5.2.2 Result 49

5.2.3 Discussion and Conclusions 54

5.3 Population Distribution and Abundance 57

5.3.1 Discussion and Conclusions 59

5.4 Movement Patterns 62

5.4.1 Methodology 63

5.4.2 Results 63

5.4.3 Discussion 63

5.5 Dietary Studies 68

5.5.1 Introduction 68

5.5.2 Examination of Stomach Contents: Methodology 75

5.5.3 Results 76

5.5.4 Discussion and Conclusions 82

CHAPTER 6: HUMAN-CROCODILE CONFLICTS IN SARAWAK 88

6.1 Introduction 88

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6.2. History of Crocodile Attacks in Sarawak 91

6.3 Methodology 92

6.4 Results 92

6.5 Discussion 100

CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR ESTUARINE CROCODILE IN 106 SARAWAK, 2016–2020

7.1 History of Crocodile Management in Sarawak 106

7.2 Management of Crocodiles During Post Brooke and Colonial Era 106

7.3 Present Crocodile Management Practices in Sarawak 108

7.4 Future Crocodile Management in Sarawak 111

7.5 The Management Plan for Crocodile in Sarawak 112

7.5.1 Purpose of the Plan 113

7.5.2 Agencies responsible 113

7.6 Objectives 114

7.6.1 Long-term objective 114

7.6.2 Specific objectives 114

7.7 Legal Instruments 115

7.7.1 State of Sarawak (Domestic) 115

7.7.2 National 115

7.7.3 International 116

7.8 Threats and issues 116

7.8.1 Human-Crocodile Conflict (HCC) 116

7.8.2 Unsustainable harvesting 117

7.9 Management Measures 118

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7.9.1 Crocodiles can be conserved but the level, extent and location for 118 conservation need to be determined

7.9.2 Establishment of Crocodile Removal Zones (CRZ) at major population 119 centres and popular recreation areas

7.9.3 Propose the down-listing of C. porosus from CITES Appendix I to 119 Appendix II in COP 17 in 2016

7.9.4 Conduct State-wide crocodile survey covering all major river systems 119 7.9.5 Appropriately equip Swift Wild Life Action Team (SWAT) including 119

providing them with specialised training

7.9.6 Expand the “3M-Buaya” awareness programme State-wide 120 7.9.7 Establishment of protected areas for crocodiles 120 7.9.8 Conducting comprehensive study relating to Carrying Capacity of certain 121

rivers and encouraging further study on crocodiles by higher learning institutes

7.10 Monitoring, Evaluation and Review 124

7.10.1 Monitoring, Evaluation and Reports 124

7.10.2 Review provisions 124

7.10.3 Guideline on crocodile harvesting 124

7.10.4 Harvest quotas 125

7.10.5 Safeguard measures 125

7.11 Licences and permits 126

7.11.1 Licences to harvest (hunt) crocodile from the wild 126

7.11.2 Licences to keep or posses 126

7.11.3 Export and import permits 127

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7.12 Skins 127

7.12.1 Meat 127

7.13 Manufactured items 127

7.14 Performance indicators 128

7.15 Crocodile Removal Zones (CRZ) 128

7.16 Standard Operating Procedures in handling crocodile within CRZ 129 7.17 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Removal and Culling of Nuisance 130

Crocodiles

7.18 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Crocodile Attack 133 7.19 Guideline for monitoring crocodile hunting and sale 136 CHAPTER 8: GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 139

REFERENCES 145

APPENDICES 158

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LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 4.1 Summary of number of yearlings (and hatchlings), and adults (which 33

includes sub-adults) of Crocodylus porosus encountered during five surveys along a number of different rivers and its tributaries within KWNP during three different lunar phases.

Table 4.2 Correlation between activity patterns of Estuarine Crocodiles in 34 KWNP and lunar phases.

Table 4.3 Summary of number of yearlings (and hatchlings), and adults (which 37 includes sub-adults) of Crocodylus porosus encountered during five

surveys along a number of different rivers and its tributaries (total length = 75.7 km) within KWNP during three different tidal levels.

Table 4.4 Correlation between activity patterns of Estuarine Crocodiles in 38 KWNP and tide levels.

Table 4.5 Summary of number of yearlings (and hatchlings), and adults (which 41 includes sub-adults) of Crocodylus porosus, in terms of encounter

frequencies, along rivers with forest cover and rivers without forest cover in KWNP.

Table 4.6 Correlation between activity and distribution of juvenile and adult 42 Estuarine Crocodiles and forest cover.

Table 5.1 Number of Estuarine Crocodiles (based on size classes) sighted during 50 different months throughout 2012 in KWNP.

Table 5.2 Calculation of a Correction Factor (CF) is based on extrapolated data 53

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that shows that 10% of EOs and 60% of the Crocodylus porosus population could be detected in each survey in Australia (Whitaker, 1984).

Table 5.3 Relative densities and population estimates of Estuarine Crocodiles in 54 KWNP over four different months in 2012.

Table 5.4 Stomach contents of hatchlings and yearlings of Crocodylus porosus (n 77

= 32; maximum food volume = 263.4 ml) from KWNP, Sarawak.

Table 5.5 Breakdown on types of stomach contents/food items of hatchlings (H) 79 and yearlings (Y) of Estuarine Crocodiles, based on size (total length),

in KWNP.

Table 5.6 Breakdown on types of stomach contents/food items of hatchlings (H) 80 and yearlings (Y) of Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP.

Table 6.1 Analysis of activities of victims of crocodile attacks (n = 95). Note: 95 Activities for the remaining number (61) of recorded attacks are not

known.

Table 6.2 Analysis of crocodile attacks (n = 95) in term of timing of day (and 97 night) in Sarawak.

Table 6.3 Summary on number of crocodile attacks on human, by months, over a 98 23-year period (1995-2018).

Table 6.4 Summary of crocodile attacks statistic in Sarawak from 1941 to 15 99 November 2018.

Table 7.1 Record of crocodile attack incidents in Sarawak between the 1940’s to 117 May 2016.

Table 7.2 Management Plan Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix. 121

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Table 7.3 Financial Implication. 122

Table 7.4 Guidelines on Living with Crocodiles. 135

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1 An adult Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). 4 Figure 2.2 Distribution of Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) 12

worldwide (Britton, 1995–2012).

Figure 3.1 Map of Kuching Wetland National Park (KWNP), showing main 23 rivers.

Figure 4.1 Mean density of Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP, with 95% CI as 33 recorded during surveys across three lunar phases.

Figure 4.2 Mean density of Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP, with 95% CI, as 38 recorded during surveys in three different tidal levels.

Figure 4.3 Mean density of Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP, with 95% CI, as 41 recorded during surveys along rivers with forest covers and rivers

without forest covers (Sungai Lemidin Besar and Sungai Lemidin Kecil, and their tributaries).

Figure 5.1 Size class distribution of Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP over five 51 different months in 2012.

Figure 5.2 Composition of size classes of Estuarine Crocodiles (in percentages) 52 in KWNP, as detected over a five-month period in 2012.

Figure 5.3 Monthly comparison (in mean percentage) between number of 53 hatchlings and adults of the Estuarine Crocodile in KWNP from

2009–2015.

Figure 5.4 The coloured dots indicate locations of crocodile sightings 58

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(classified by size classes) recorded during the surveys in 2012.

Higher concentration of crocodilians, particularly that of adults, were found along sectors of Sungai Lemidin Kecil and Lemidin Besar, around Pulau Liak and Loba Matang and Loba Mengkuang.

Figure 5.5 Relationship between number of crocodile sightings and distance of 59 rivers surveyed in KWNP.

Figure 5.6 Comparison on types of food items among hatchlings (H) and 82 yearlings (Y) of the Estuarine Crocodiles in KWNP.

Figure 6.1 Breakdown of crocodile attacks between 1941 and 15 November 93 2018.

Figure 6.2 Annual trend of crocodile attacks in Sarawak from 1941–17 May 94 2016.

Figure 6.3 Summary of different activities of victims when attacked by 96 crocodiles.

Figure 6.4 Summary on Trend of crocodile attacks based on time of day. 97 Figure 6.5 Trend of crocodile attacks on human, by months, over a period of 98

23 years (1995-2018).

Figure 6.6 Statistic of recorded crocodile attacks, based on race, in Sarawak 100 from 1941 to 15 November 2018.

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CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Sarawak, a Malaysian State in the island of Borneo, has been described as “a land of many rivers” (Ritchie & Jong, 2002). Due to its generally rugged topography, except along coastal areas, rivers have become one of its main modes of transportation. Rivers also provide food and water to many local communities dwelling along river banks. At the same time, rivers and its estuaries provide natural habitats for many species, among them, the Estuarine Crocodile, which is sometimes referred to as the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).The species is distributed in a wide variety of saline and freshwater habitats, including rivers and creeks, coastlines, coastal flood plains, lagoons, swamps, rivers and canal outfalls (Webb & Manolis, 1989). Although popularly referred to as ‘Salties’ in Australia and Sri Lanka (Webb & Manolis, 1989, Amarasinghe et al., 2015), a high proportion of the Saltwater Crocodile population exists in freshwater habitats in Sarawak (Engkamat, unpublished report). The Saltwater Crocodile is reportedly the largest living reptile on Earth - it can grow up to 6–7 m (Webb et al., 1978;

Whitaker & Whitaker, 2008; Erickson et al., 2012). Similar to other crocodilians, it is an opportunistic feeder, using active hunting or ‘sit-and-wait’ strategy (Cooper & Jenkins, 1993), the frequency of types varying significantly with habitat and body size (Taylor, 1979; Webb &

Manolis, 1989). Juveniles, including hatchlings and yearlings, have been reported to consume smaller animals, such as insects, fishes, amphibians and small reptiles (Kumar et al., 2012), although quantitative studies of food preference of the species remain largely unknown.

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The effect of lunar cycles on crocodilian densities during field surveys have been a neglected topic, only recently receiving some interest among researchers, being relevant to conservation and monitoring of populations (Grant et al., 2012).

Distribution and abundance of crocodiles, particularly among individuals of different size classes, are also potentially influenced by tidal cycle. Potential food resources, such as shrimps and small fish that may be introduced into a system by inflow of tides and sediments (Gerlach, 1977) or the water column (Bell & Sherman, 1980; Hagerman & Rieger, 1981; Sibert, 1981), may also influence the distribution and abundance of the species. Vegetation communities have long been associated with assessment of habitat requirements of species in Australia and elsewhere (Sattler & Williams, 1999). Thus, a study on the proportion of forest cover along rivers is of importance in understanding the distribution and abundance of Estuarine Crocodiles.

The Estuarine Crocodile is a protected species under Sarawak’s Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998, and currently, at the international level, has been downgraded into CITES Appendix II, implying that the species can be captured from the wild with licence from the Controller of Wild Life, while international trade requires CITES permits.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the study, encompassing a study on Estuarine Crocodile abundance, distribution and other ecological aspects in Kuching Wetlands National Park (KWNP) are:

i. To determine the population structure and local distribution of the species in the Park, ii. To analyse and to document activity pattern of the species in the Park,

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iii. To determine effect of lunar cycles, tidal condition and forest cover on abundance of the species in the Park, and

iv. To analyse dietary preference of young crocodiles (hatchlings and yearlings) in the Park.

The study also includes brief analysis on Human Crocodile-Conflict, particularly on crocodile attacks in Sarawak and inclusion of a Management Plan for Estuarine Crocodile in Sarawak for year 2016–2020. The inclusion of a Management Plan for Estuarine Crocodile in Sarawak for 2016–2020 was aimed to provide guideline for better management of Estuarine Crocodile within the State, while at the same time would reduce Human-Crocodile Conflict and generate revenue for local communities, and the State of Sarawak, in general.

1.3 Problem Statements

An analysis of crocodile abundance along rivers of different sizes and during different tidal conditions and lunar cycles will help improve understanding of the ecology of the target species in KWNP. The population surveys done in the past to determine population size, population structure, distribution, breeding pattern and density do not provide information as to whether its abundance in the Park may be affected by river size, tidal conditions, forest cover and lunar cycles.

The study also includes analysis on Human-Crocodile Conflict, particularly on attacks by Estuarine Crocodiles on humans throughout the State of Sarawak for the past 77 years, particularly to determine possible causes of attacks on humans, when, and the situation or activities of victims that may lead to the attacks.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): Evolution

Crocodilians are the world’s largest living reptiles, and have been around for about 240 million years (Webb & Manolis, 1989). Their anatomical and physiological adaptations enable an aquatic-predatory lifestyle among the species. The Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is one of 24 species of crocodilians found in the world (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: An adult Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).

Crocodiles, together with its relatives, the alligators, the American caimans and the gharials are the only surviving members of the Archosauria, which includes the dinosaurs, and over the past 200 million years, the order Crocodilia, the largest of the living reptiles, had

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