THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

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(1)al. ay. a. EDUCATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHNIC IDENTITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CHINESE STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA. ve r. si. ty. of. M. HO PEI YAO. U. ni. FACULTY OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2018.

(2) al. ay. a. EDUCATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHNIC IDENTITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CHINESE STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA. of. M. HO PEI YAO. ve r. si. ty. THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. U. ni. FACULTY OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR. 2018.

(3) UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION. Name of Candidate: HO PEI YAO Matric No: AHA130043 Name of Degree: DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”):. a. EDUCATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHNIC IDENTITY OF. I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:. al. Field of Study: SOCIETY AND CULTURE. ay. SECONDARY SCHOOL CHINESE STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Candidate’s Signature. Date:. Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Witness’s Signature. Date:. Name: Designation:. ii.

(4) EDUCATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHNIC IDENTITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CHINESE STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA. ABSTRACT. The complexity of Chinese education in the making of Chinese ethnic identity continues to be highly debated issues in the ethnically diverse Malaysian society even. a. after nearly six decades of independence. By employing social psychological approach,. ay. this research examined the Malaysian Chinese secondary school students’ ethnic identity,. al. the issues of Chinese language and education, as well as the relationship between the two. M. variables of the Malaysian Chinese secondary school students’ ethnic identity and Chinese language and education, from the perspectives of the secondary school students. of. themselves. Applying the research theoretical framework based on Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1974), Theory of Identity Development (Erikson, 1968) and Personality and. ty. Social Structure Perspective model (PSSP) (Côtѐ, & Levine, 2002), the context-bounded. si. construct of the Malaysian Chinese secondary school students’ ethnic identity is. ve r. investigated within the current Malaysian educational contexts. Quantitative survey method with Likert Scale and open-ended questions was employed for data collection and. ni. analysis. Stratified sampling method was conducted in selected secondary schools from. U. five regions in Malaysia with a total of 1342 respondents. The selected secondary schools consisted of National Secondary Schools (NSS), National Type Secondary Schools (NTSS) and Independent Chinese Secondary Schools (ICSS). The correlation between Chinese language and education with Chinese students’ ethnic identity is confirmed in this research albeit the correlations were found for different dimensions of ethnic identity with the specific educational factors.. iii.

(5) With the comparison on the typology of the modified education category from the model of Chinese identity and Chinese education (Tan, 1988a), statistical findings indicated that NSS students have showed a higher level of ethnic identity than students in the ICSS and NTSS. More specifically, the highest scores were found for NSS students in their composite index of Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM) as well as the dimensions of Affirmation and Belonging (A&B) and Exploration and Individual-based. a. Interpretation (E&IbI). In terms of Chinese language and education, the students’. ay. perspectives are manifold, with prevalent usage and preference of Chinese language in their everyday life and general positive views and attitudes in maintaining and passing. al. down Chinese education. In causal relationship, the NSS students’ ethnic identity is. M. predicted by more micro level educational factors whereas the ICSS and NTSS students’ ethnic identity is predicted by more macro level educational factors. The research findings. of. highlighted the effects of each education contextual factors by school type but. ty. comprehensive Chinese mother tongue education predicted the students’ ethnic identity. si. from all education categories. This research indicated the importance of the immediate social contextual factors in constructing the Malaysian Chinese secondary school. ve r. students’ ethnic identity as well as the societal beliefs of Chinese language and education as an ethnic representation within the context of Malaysian multi-ethnic setting.. ni. Considering that ethnic identity is contextually determined, the current educational. U. system with different secondary educational tracks should be re-examine to assign Chinese language and education with new meaning and better understanding, for the multi-ethnic amalgamation and national integration.. Keywords: Chinese education, Malaysian Chinese, ethnic identity, educational factors, secondary school Chinese students. iv.

(6) FAKTOR-FAKTOR PENDIDIKAN YANG MEMPENGARUHI IDENTITI ETNIK PELAJAR CINA SEKOLAH MENENGAH DI MALAYSIA. ABSTRAK. Keruwatan pendidikan Bahasa Cina dalam pembentukan identiti etnik Cina terus menjadi isu perbahasan dalam masyarakat Malaysia yang pelbagai etnik walaupun. a. selepas hampir enam dekad kemerdekaan. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan psikologi. ay. sosial, kajian ini meneliti identiti etnik pelajar sekolah menengah Cina, isu bahasa dan pendidikan Bahasa Cina, serta hubungan antara kedua-dua pemboleh ubah yang terdiri. al. daripada identiti etnik pelajar sekolah menengah Cina dan bahasa dan pendidikan Bahasa. M. Cina, dari perspektif pelajar remaja sendiri. Berdasarkan kerangka teori yang berteraskan Teori Identiti Sosial (Tajfel, 1974), Teori Perkembangan Identiti (Erikson, 1968) and. of. Model Personaliti dan Perspektif Struktur Sosial (Côtѐ and Levine, 2002), konstruk. ty. identiti etnik pelajar menengah Cina Malaysia dikaji dalam konteks pendidikan Malaysia. si. semasa. Kaedah kuantitatif melalui tinjauan berdasarkan Skala Likert dan soalan terbuka digunakan untuk tujuan pengumpulan dan analisis data. Kaedah persampelan berstrata. ve r. dijalankan di sekolah menengah terpilih dari lima wilayah di Malaysia sejumlah 1342 responden. Sekolah menengah terpilih terdiri daripada Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan. ni. (NSS), Skolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan (NTSS) dan Sekolah Menengah Cina. U. Persendirian (ICSS). Hubungan antara bahasa dan pendidikan Bahasa Cina dengan identiti etnik pelajar Cina disahkan dalam penyelidikan ini walaupun korelasi untuk identiti etnik didapati berbeza dimensi dari faktor pendidikan tertentu.. Dengan perbandingan dengan tipologi kategori pendidikan yang diubahsuai daripada model identiti Cina dan pendidikan Cina (Tan, 1988a), dapatan statistik menunjukkan bahawa pelajar NSS menunjukkan tahap identiti etnik yang lebih tinggi daripada pelajar di ICSS dan NTSS. Secara terperinci, skor tertinggi diperolehi daripada v.

(7) pelajar NSS dalam indeks komposit “ukuran identiti etnik keseluruhan” (OEIM) serta dimensi “penegasan dan kepunyaan” (A&B) dan “eksplorasi dan tafsiran berasaskan individu” (E&IbI). Dari segi bahasa dan pendidikan Cina, perspektif pelajar adalah pelbagai, dengan penggunaan dan keutamaan Bahasa Cina dalam kehidupan seharian mereka dan pandangan dan sikap positif mereka dalam mengekalkan dan meneruskan pendidikan Bahasa Cina. Dari segi hubungan sebab-akibat, identiti etnik pelajar Sekolah. a. Menengah Kebangsaan (NSS) ditentukan oleh lebih banyak faktor pendidikan mikro. ay. manakala identiti etnik pelajar Sekolah Menengah Cina Persendirian (ICSS) dan Sekolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan (NTSS) ditentukan oleh lebih banyak faktor pendidikan. al. makro. Dapatan penyelidikan ini menekankan kesan setiap faktor kontekstual pendidikan. M. mengikut jenis sekolah tetapi pendidikan ibunda Bahasa Cina yang komprehensif menentukan identiti etnik pelajar dari semua kategori pendidikan. Kajian ini. of. menunjukkan kepentingan faktor kontekstual sosial dalam membina identiti etnik pelajar. ty. sekolah menengah Cina serta kepercayaan masyarakat dalam Bahasa dan pendidikan. si. Bahasa Cina sebagai perwakilan etnik dalam konteks Malaysia yang berbilang etnik. Memandangkan identiti etnik ditentukan secara kontekstual, sistem pendidikan semasa. ve r. dengan aliran pendidikan menengah yang berbeza perlu dikaji semula untuk memberi makna baru dan penambahbaikan pemahaman masyarakat terhadap bahasa dan. U. ni. pendidikan Bahasa Cina demi amalgamasi pelbagai etnik dan integrasi negara.. Kata Kunci: Pendidikan Cina, Cina Malaysia, identity etnik, faktor-faktor pendidikan, pelajar Cina sekolah menengah. vi.

(8) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. My greatest appreciation of having the grace of studying this PhD belongs to Christ the Lord, my God. Thank you for the blessings, provisions and strength each and everyday in this wonderful journey.. a. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Education Malaysia for selecting me in the scholarship programme for in-service teachers 2014. The scholarship for full-time PhD programme had allowed me to concentrate on my research and study in my efforts to produce this fruitful thesis.. al. ay. Wholeheartedly with thanks, special mention goes to my supervisor, Dr. Thock Ker Pong, who has always been a dedicated mentor. Thank you for his unceasing academic supports, research inspirations, opportunities and guidances throughout my research and thesis writing. Thank you for his confidence in me and my works.. of. M. I am also hugely appreciative to Dr. Chew Fong Peng, who has been a tremendous source of energy for me. Thank you for her keen enthusiasm in academic knowledge sharing and tirelessly providing me with revisions in the process of supervising me. Thank you for her continuous encouragement, motivation and patients.. ve r. si. ty. Through it all, I am grateful for the love and supports to everyone I met along the way in my research and thesis writing, especially my graduate friends in the Department of Chinese Studies, University of Malaya. I am blessed to receive the encouragement and helpful suggestions from them. Special thanks to Asia Research Institute of the National University of Singapore for hosted me in the Asian Graduate Fellowship 2016 programme as well as for the academic experiences in the Asian Graduate Conference.. U. ni. Finally, but by no means least, thanks go to my mother, father, sister and my two brothers for their great support. Without them, I would not be able to walk this journey and I dedicate this thesis to them.. vii.

(9) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iiii Abstrak .............................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................... xvii. a. List of Tables................................................................................................................xviii. ay. List of Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................................. xxvv. al. List of Appendices .....................................................................................................xxviii. M. CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH BACKGROUND ............................................................. 1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1. 1.2. Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 3. 1.3. Research Scope ........................................................................................................ 7. 1.4. Research Objectives............................................................................................... 11. 1.5. Research Questions ................................................................................................ 12. ve r. si. ty. of. 1.1. Hypothesis ............................................................................................................. 13. 1.7. Operational Definition ........................................................................................... 14. ni. 1.6. U. 1.7.1. Chinese Language and Education ............................................................ 14. 1.7.2. Language Factors ..................................................................................... 17. 1.7.3. School Factors .......................................................................................... 18. 1.7.4. Ethnic Identity .......................................................................................... 19. 1.7.5. Malaysian Chinese ................................................................................... 20. 1.8. Significance of the Research ................................................................................. 23. 1.9. Research Methodology .......................................................................................... 25 1.9.1. Research Paradigm ................................................................................... 25. viii.

(10) Research Design ....................................................................................... 28. 1.9.3. Research Method: The Population and Sampling .................................... 30. 1.9.4. Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 33. 1.9.5. Pilot Study ................................................................................................ 43. 1.9.6. Reliability of Instruments ......................................................................... 43. 1.9.7. Validity of Instruments ............................................................................. 44. 1.9.8. Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 46. a. 1.9.2. ay. 1.10 Limitations of the Research ................................................................................... 46. al. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 49 Introduction............................................................................................................ 49. 2.2. Theories of Ethnicity ............................................................................................. 50. 2.3. Social Identity Theory ........................................................................................... 63. of. The Concept of Social Identity ................................................................. 63. 2.3.2. Defining Ethnic Identity in Social Identity Theory .................................. 67. 2.3.3. The Dimensions of Ethnic Identity........................................................... 70. si. ty. 2.3.1. Theory of Identity Development ........................................................................... 74. ve r. 2.4. M. 2.1. The Concept of Identity Development ..................................................... 74. 2.4.2. The Extension and Expansion of Identity Development .......................... 77. ni. 2.4.1. Conceptualizing Ethnic Identity in Context: Integrating the Theories of Social. U. 2.5. Identity and Identity Development ........................................................................ 80. 2.6. The Formation of Ethnic Identity in Educational Context .................................... 84 2.6.1. Ethnic Identity in Context: Evidence from Language Factors ................. 88. 2.6.2. Ethnic Identity in Context: Evidence from School Factors ...................... 97. 2.6.3. Previous Research on Chinese Ethnic Identity and Chinese Education in Malaysia ................................................................................................. 103. 2.7. Research Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 114 ix.

(11) 2.8. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 117. CHAPTER 3: TRANSFORMATION OF CHINESE IDENTITY IN MALAYSIAN CHINESE EDUCATIONAL HISTORY .................................................................. 118 3.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 118. 3.2. Colonial Rule in Malaya: Modern Chinese Education and Its Effect on Chinese Identity ................................................................................................................. 119 The Genesis of Modern Chinese Education ........................................... 119. 3.2.2. Forces in Between: China-governed or Colonial-controlled Chinese. ay. a. 3.2.1. Post-war Era and the Road to Independence: Malaya-oriented Identity through. M. 3.3. al. Education ................................................................................................ 125. Chinese Education ............................................................................................... 130 The Endurance of Chinese Spirit of Nationalism and the Shift to Localized. of. 3.3.1. 3.3.2. ty. Identity.................................................................................................... 130 Paradigm Shift to the Malaya-oriented Chinese Identity through Education. The Formation of Malaysia: Mother Tongue Education and Ethnic Identity ..... 141. ve r. 3.4. si. Planning .................................................................................................. 134. Malaysianized Identity through the Pursue of One Medium Education 141. 3.4.2. Chinese Identity through the Lens of Chinese Education Movement .... 151. ni. 3.4.1. Towards One Single Medium of Education: The Educational Tracks for Malaysian. U. 3.5. Chinese ................................................................................................................ 160. 3.5.1. New Categories of Malaysian Chinese according to Educational Background ............................................................................................ 160. 3.5.2 3.6. Three Type of Secondary Education Systems ........................................ 163. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 173. x.

(12) CHAPTER 4: MALAYSIAN CHINESE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ETHNIC IDENTITY .................................................................................................. 174 4.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 174. 4.2. Research Sample .................................................................................................. 174. 4.2.2. Sample Size ............................................................................................ 177. 4.2.3. Selection of Sampling Site and Respondents ......................................... 179. a. Sample Characteristics ........................................................................... 175. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Measure ......... 182 4.3.1. ay. 4.3. 4.2.1. Descriptive Statistics, Reliability and Validity of Malaysian Chinese Ethnic. al. Identity Scale .......................................................................................... 182 Factor Analysis of Malaysian Chinese Ethnic Identity Measure ........... 184. 4.3.3. The Structure of Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM) for Malaysian. M. 4.3.2. Descriptive Statistics, Reliability and Validity of Overall Ethnic Identity. ty. 4.3.4. of. Chinese Secondary School Students ...................................................... 188. si. Measure (OEIM), Factor Affirmation & Belonging (A&B) and Factor Exploration & Individual-based Interpretation (E&IbI) ........................ 193 Social Background in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’. ve r. 4.4. Ethnic Identity Level ........................................................................................... 194 Type of School in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School. U. ni. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................. 194 Gender in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’. Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................................. 197 4.4.3. Study Major in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................. 198. 4.4.4. Research Location in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................. 199. xi.

(13) 4.4.5. Sub-Ethnic Group in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................. 201. 4.4.6. Monthly Household Income in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .................................................. 202. 4.4.7. Father’s Highest Level of Education in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level ................................ 204 Mother’s Highest Level of Education in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese. a. 4.4.8. 4.4.9. ay. Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level ................................ 205 Father’s Occupation in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School. al. Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .............................................................. 206. M. 4.4.10 Mother’s Occupation in Comparison: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level .................................................. 208. of. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 209. ty. 4.5. CHAPTER 5: MALAYSIAN CHINESE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’. si. PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATIONAL FACTORS (MICRO AND MACRO. ve r. LEVEL) AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THEIR ETHNIC IDENTITY ............ 211 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 211. 5.2. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on Micro Educational. ni. 5.1. U. Factors ................................................................................................................. 211. 5.2.1. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Language Usage ........ 212. 5.2.2. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Chinese Language Proficiency…. ......................................................................................... 221. 5.2.3. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Language Preference. 222. 5.2.4. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on School as Ethnic-Learning Supportive Site ............................................................ 225. xii.

(14) 5.2.5. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on Chinese Language Teacher in Supporting Ethnic-Learning ................................ 227. 5.3. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on Macro Educational Factors ................................................................................................................. 228 5.3.1. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on the Importance of Chinese Language in Life ............................................... 229 Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on. a. 5.3.2. 5.3.3. ay. Comprehensive Chinese Mother Tongue Education .............................. 231 Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on. al. Government’s Approaches toward the Importance of Chinese Language in. 5.4. M. Life and Comprehensive Chinese Mother Tongue Education ............... 232 The Relationship between Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic. The Relationship between Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic. ty. 5.5. of. Identity and Micro Educational Factors .............................................................. 234. 5.6. si. Identity and Macro Educational Factors .............................................................. 237 Main Educational Factors in Constructing Malaysian Chinese Secondary School. ve r. Students’ Ethnic Identity ..................................................................................... 239. 5.6.1. Main Predictors in Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM), Factor. U. ni. Affirmation & Belonging (A&B) and Factor Exploration & Individual-. 5.6.2. based Interpretation (E&IbI) of Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students (N=1342) ................................................................................. 239 Main Predictors in Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM) of ICSS Students (N=448) ................................................................................... 248. 5.6.3. Main Predictors in Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM) of NTSS Students (N=452) ................................................................................... 249. xiii.

(15) 5.6.4. Main Predictors in Overall Ethnic Identity Measure (OEIM) Of NSS Students (N=442) ................................................................................... 251. 5.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 253. CHAPTER 6: LANGUAGE, EDUCATION AND ETHNIC IDENTITY: THE PERSPECTIVES FROM MALAYSIAN CHINESE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS….............................................................................................................. 256 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 256. 6.2. Analysis of Open-ended Responses..................................................................... 256. 6.3. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives of Learning Chinese. al. ay. a. 6.1. 6.3.1. Ethnic-based Reasons. M. Language.............................................................................................................. 258 of the Importance of Learning Chinese. Non-ethnic-based Reasons of the Importance of Learning Chinese. ty. 6.3.2. of. Language………….. .................................................. …………………260. Language ................................................................................................ 269. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives of the Improvement. ve r. 6.4. Negative Perspectives of Learning Chinese Language .......................... 278. si. 6.3.3. of Malaysian Education ....................................................................................... 280 Ethnic-based Areas of Malaysian Education Improvement ................... 282. 6.4.2. General Areas of Malaysian Education Improvement ........................... 293. 6.4.3. The Unnecessary of Improvement.......................................................... 301. U. ni. 6.4.1. 6.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 302. CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................ 304 7.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 304. 7.2. Statistical Analysis............................................................................................... 304. 7.3. Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................ 306 xiv.

(16) 7.3.1. The Relationship between Chinese Education and Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity .......................................... 306. 7.3.2. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Ethnic Identity Level 321. 7.3.3. Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on Micro and Macro Educational Factors ..................................................................... 335. 7.3.4. The Relationship between Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’. Chinese Ethnic Identity from the Aspects of the Importance of Learning. ay. 7.3.5. a. Ethnic Identity and Educational Factors by School Type ...................... 351. Chinese Language and the Improvement of Malaysian Education ........ 364 Chinese Education and Chinese ethnic identity................................................... 369. 7.5. Implication of Study ............................................................................................ 375. M. Implication of Result .............................................................................. 375. 7.5.2. Implication of Theory ............................................................................. 377. 7.5.3. Implication of Practice ........................................................................... 378. ty. of. 7.5.1. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 381. si. 7.6. al. 7.4. ve r. CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 383 References ..................................................................................................................... 389. ni. List of Publications ....................................................................................................... 421. U. Appendix ....................................................................................................................... 422. xv.

(17) LIST OF FIGURES. Figure 1.1: Research Paradigm ....................................................................................... 27 Figure 2.1: Ethnic Identity Formation and Maintenance Process (PSSP) ...................... 85 Figure 2.2: Research Framework .................................................................................. 116 Figure 4.1: Scree Plot (PCA-1) ..................................................................................... 185. a. Figure 5.1: Language Usage: Speak to Teachers at School .......................................... 212. ay. Figure 5.2: Language Usage: Speak to Friends at School ............................................ 212 Figure 5.3: Language Usage: Speak at Home ............................................................... 213. al. Figure 5.4: Language Usage: Speak at Religious Venue .............................................. 213. M. Figure 5.5: Language Usage: Speak at Shopping Mall ................................................. 213. of. Figure 5.6: Language Usage: Speak at Night Market ................................................... 213 Figure 5.7: Language Usage: Studying Science Subjects ............................................. 216. ty. Figure 5.8: Language Usage: Studying Art Subjects .................................................... 216. si. Figure 5.9: Language Usage: Searching Information Online ....................................... 217. ve r. Figure 5.10: Language Usage: Using Social Network .................................................. 217 Figure 5.11: Language Usage: Reading Newspaper ..................................................... 217. ni. Figure 5.12: Language Usage: Reading Story Books/ Magazines ................................ 217. U. Figure 5.13: Language Usage: Listening and Singing Songs ....................................... 218 Figure 5.14: Language Usage: Sending Text Messages via Hand Phone ..................... 218 Figure 5.15: Language Preference: Learning about Chinese Culture ........................... 222 Figure 5.16: Language Preference: Learning about Confucianism .............................. 222 Figure 5.17: Language Preference: Learning about Chinese Literature ....................... 223 Figure 5.18: Language Preference: Worshipping Ancestors ........................................ 223 Figure 5.19: Language Preference: Celebrating Chinese Festivals .............................. 223. xvi.

(18) Figure 5.20: Regression Model Predicting OEIM for ICSS Students .......................... 249 Figure 5.21: Regression Model Predicting OEIM for NTSS Students ......................... 251 Figure 5.22: Regression Model Predicting OEIM for NSS Students ........................... 253 Figure 7.1: Significant Correlation between Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Educational Factors ....................................................................... 307 Figure 7.2: Significant Educational Predictors on Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity ............................................................................................... 315. a. Figure 7.3: The Comparison of Ethnic Identity Level by School Type ........................ 323. al. ay. Figure 7.4: The Comparison of Chinese Language Usage, Proficiency and Preference by School Type .................................................................................................................. 336. M. Figure 7.5: The Comparison of Ethnic-Learning Supports by the School and Chinese Language Teacher by School Type ............................................................................... 344. of. Figure 7.6: The Comparison of Macro Level Chinese Language and Education Factors by School Type ............................................................................................................. 348. ty. Figure 7.7: Correlation between ICSS Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Educational Factors ........................................................................................................................... 352. si. Figure 7.8: Correlation between NTSS Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Educational Factors ........................................................................................................................... 354. ve r. Figure 7.9: Correlation between NSS Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Educational Factors ........................................................................................................................... 356. ni. Figure 7.10: Educational Factors in Constructing Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity according to School Type..................................................... 358. U. Figure 7.11: Impact Factor: Chinese Education and Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity according to Three Type of Secondary Education Systems 372. xvii.

(19) LIST OF TABLES. Table 1.1: Typology of the Modified Education Category ............................................... 9 Table 1.2: Definitions of “Mother Tongue” .................................................................... 15 Table 1.3: Malaysian Chinese Population in Five Regions ............................................ 31 Table 1.4: Estimation of Respondents by Region, Research Location and Type of School ......................................................................................................................................... 32. a. Table 1.5: Practice in STV Ratio for Factor Analysis .................................................... 32. ay. Table 1.6: The Change of Wordings in Item Adaptation from MEIM to OEIM ………35. al. Table 1.7: Reliability of Cronbach’s Alpha Value for Dependent and Independent Variables ......................................................................................................................... 44. M. Table 1.8: Amendment of Questionnaire Items based on Experts' Recommendation….45. of. Table 2.1: Categories of ‘Chineseness’ ......................................................................... 104. ty. Table 3.1: Main Suggestions in Education Proposals under the Federation of Malaya (1948 – 1955) ................................................................................................................ 137. si. Table 3.2: The Main Educational Concerns of National Educational Policies in Malaysia ....................................................................................................................................... 143. ve r. Table 3.3: Dongjiaozong’s Action in Response to National Education Policy and Education Strategy ........................................................................................................ 156. ni. Table 3.4: Type of Education and Chinese Identity ...................................................... 161. U. Table 3.5: Main Characteristics of ICSS, NTSS and NSS ........................................... 165 Table 4.1: Research Respondents according to Demographic Information .................. 177 Table 4.2: Total Respondents by Region, Research Location and Type of School ...... 180 Table 4.3: Teachers’ and Students’ Ethnic Composition by Region, Research Location and Type of School ....................................................................................................... 181 Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics for Each Item on Malaysian Chinese Ethnic Identity Scale (N=1342) ............................................................................................................. 182 Table 4.5: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix (Malaysian Chinese Ethnic Identity Scale) . 183. xviii.

(20) Table 4.6: Total Variance Explained (PCA-1).............................................................. 184 Table 4.7: Rotated Component Matrixa (PCA-1).......................................................... 186 Table 4.8: Total Variance Explained (PCA-2).............................................................. 187 Table 4.9: Rotated Component Matrixa (PCA-2).......................................................... 187 Table 4.10: Items under Factor 1 (Affirmation & Belonging) and Factor 2 (Exploration & Individual-based Interpretation) ................................................................................ 188. a. Table 4.11: Ethnic Identity Factors of OEIM and across MEIM Studies ..................... 189. ay. Table 4.12: Comparison of Two-Factor Structure OEIM to the original MEIM Subscales ....................................................................................................................................... 191. al. Table 4.13: Descriptive Statistics for A&B, E&IbI and OEIM (N=1342) ................... 193. M. Table 4.14: Correlations between Two Ethnic Identity Factors ................................... 193 Table 4.15: Reliability for A&B, E&IbI and OEIM by Type of School ...................... 194. of. Table 4.16: Level of Ethnic Identity by Type of School............................................... 194. ty. Table 4.17: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Type of School) ....................................................................................................................................... 195. si. Table 4.18: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Type of School) ......... 195. ve r. Table 4.19: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (Level of Ethnic Identity by Type of School) ....................................................................................................................................... 196. ni. Table 4.20: Level of Ethnic Identity by Gender ........................................................... 197. U. Table 4.21: Independent Sample Test (Level of Ethnic Identity by Gender) ............... 197 Table 4.22: Level of Ethnic Identity by Study Major ................................................... 198 Table 4.23: Independent Sample Test (Level of Ethnic Identity by Study Major) ....... 198 Table 4.24: Level of Ethnic Identity by Research Location ......................................... 199 Table 4.25: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Research Location) ....................................................................................................................... 200 Table 4.26: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Research Location) .... 200 Table 4.27: Level of Ethnic Identity by Sub-ethnic Group ........................................... 201 xix.

(21) Table 4.28: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Sub-ethnic Group) ....................................................................................................................................... 201 Table 4.29: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Sub-ethnic Group) ..... 202 Table 4.30: Level of Ethnic Identity by Monthly Household Income .......................... 202 Table 4.31: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Monthly Household Income) ....................................................................................................... 203. a. Table 4.32: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Monthly Household Income) ......................................................................................................................... 203. ay. Table 4.33: Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Highest Level of Education ............. 204. al. Table 4.34: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Highest Level of Education) ....................................................................................................... 204. M. Table 4.35: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Highest Level of Education) ..................................................................................................................... 205. of. Table 4.36: Level of Ethnic Identity by Mother’s Highest Level of Education ........... 205. ty. Table 4.37: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Mother’s Highest Level of Education) ....................................................................................................... 206. si. Table 4.38: Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Occupation ....................................... 206. ve r. Table 4.39: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Occupation) ................................................................................................................... 207 Table 4.40: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Father’s Occupation) . 207. ni. Table 4.41: Level of Ethnic Identity by Mother’s Occupation ..................................... 208. U. Table 4.42: Tests of Equality of Variances (Level of Ethnic Identity by Mother’s Occupation) ................................................................................................................... 208 Table 4.43: Analysis of Variance (Level of Ethnic Identity by Mother’s Occupation) 208 Table 5.1: Reliability (Micro Educational Factors) (N=1342) ..................................... 212 Table 5.2: Descriptive Statistics for CLUD by Type of School ................................... 215 Table 5.3: Tests of Equality of Variances (CLUD by Type of School) ........................ 215 Table 5.4: Analysis of Variance (CLUD by Type of School)....................................... 215. xx.

(22) Table 5.5: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (CLUD by Type of School) ..................... 216 Table 5.6: Descriptive Statistics for Chinese Language Usage in Various Common Activities by Type of Schools ....................................................................................... 219 Table 5.7: Tests of Equality of Variances (Chinese Language Usage in Various Common Activities by Type of School) ....................................................................................... 220 Table 5.8: Analysis of Variance (Chinese Language Usage in Various Common Activities by Type of School) ........................................................................................................ 220. a. Table 5.9: Post-hoc multiple comparisons (Chinese Language Usage in Various Common Activities by Type of School) ....................................................................................... 220. ay. Table 5.10: Descriptive Statistics for CLPro by Type of School .................................. 221. al. Table 5.11: Tests of Equality of Variances (CLPro by Type of School) ...................... 222. M. Table 5.12: Descriptive Statistics for CLPre by Type of School .................................. 224 Table 5.13: Tests of Equality of Variances (CLPre by Type of School) ...................... 224. of. Table 5.14: Analysis of variance (CLPre by Type of Schools) .................................... 224. ty. Table 5.15: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (CLPre by Type of School) .................... 225. si. Table 5.16: Descriptive Statistics for SESS by Type of School ................................... 225. ve r. Table 5.17: Tests of Equality of Variances (SESS by Type of School) ....................... 226 Table 5.18: Analysis of Variance (SESS by Type of School) ...................................... 226. ni. Table 5.19: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (SESS by Type of School) ..................... 226. U. Table 5.20: Descriptive Statistics for CLTSE by Type of School ................................ 227 Table 5.21: Tests of Equality of Variances (CLTSE by Type of School) .................... 227 Table 5.22: Analysis of Variance (CLTSE by Type of School) ................................... 228 Table 5.23: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (CLTSE by Type of School) .................. 228 Table 5.24: Reliability (Macro Educational Factors) (N=1342) ................................... 229 Table 5.25: Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Perspectives on ICLL by Type of School ....................................................................................................................................... 229. xxi.

(23) Table 5.26: Tests of Equality of Variances (Students’ Perspectives on ICLL by Type of School) .......................................................................................................................... 229 Table 5.27: Analysis of Variance (Students’ Perspectives on ICLL by Type of School) ....................................................................................................................................... 230 Table 5.28: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (Students’ Perspectives on ICLL by Type of School) .......................................................................................................................... 230 Table 5.29: Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Perspectives on CCMTE by Type of School............................................................................................................................ 231. ay. a. Table 5.30: Tests of Equality of Variances (Students’ Perspectives on CCMTE by Type of School) ...................................................................................................................... 231. al. Table 5.31: Analysis of Variance (Students’ Perspectives on CCMTE by Type of School) ....................................................................................................................................... 231. M. Table 5.32: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (Students’ Perspectives on CCMTE by Type of School) ...................................................................................................................... 232. of. Table 5.33: Descriptive Statistics for Students’ Perspectives on GA-ICLL-CCMTE by Type of Schools ............................................................................................................ 232. ty. Table 5.34: Tests of Equality of Variances (Students’ Perspectives on GA-ICLL-CCMTE by Type of School) ........................................................................................................ 233. ve r. si. Table 5.35: Analysis of Variance (Students’ Perspectives on GA-ICLL-CCMTE by Type of School) ...................................................................................................................... 233. ni. Table 5.36: Post-hoc Multiple Comparisons (Students’ Perspectives on GA-ICLLCCMTE by Type of School) ......................................................................................... 234. U. Table 5.37: Pearson Correlation, r between Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Micro Educational Fctors (N=1342) ............................................. 234 Table 5.38: Pearson Correlation, r between Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ Ethnic Identity and Micro Educational Factors by Type of School .............................. 235 Table 5.39: Pearson Correlation, r between Adolescent Malaysian Chinese Students’ ethnic identity and Macro Educational Factors (N=1342) ............................................ 237 Table 5.40: Pearson Correlation, r between Adolescent Malaysian Chinese students’ Ethnic Identity and Macro Educational Factors by Type of School ............................. 238 Table 5.41: Model Summary of Predictors to OEIM by Controlling the Effect of Type of School............................................................................................................................ 240. xxii.

(24) Table 5.42: Coefficients of Predictors to OEIM by Controlling the Effect of Type of School............................................................................................................................ 242 Table 5.43: Model Summary of Predictors to A&B by Controlling the Effect of Type of School............................................................................................................................ 243 Table 5.44: Coefficients of Predictors to A&B by Controlling the Effect of Type of School ....................................................................................................................................... 244 Table 5.45: Model Summary of Predictors to E&IbI by Controlling the Effect of Type of School............................................................................................................................ 245. ay. a. Table 5.46: Coefficients of Predictors to E&IbI by Controlling the Effect of Type of School............................................................................................................................ 246. al. Table 5.47: Model Summary of OEIM for ICSS Sample ............................................. 248 Table 5.48: Coefficients of Predictors to OEIM for ICSS Sample ............................... 248. M. Table 5.49: Model Summary of OEIM for NTSS Sample............................................ 249. of. Table 5.50: Coefficients of Predictors to OEIM for NTSS Sample .............................. 250 Table 5.51: Model Summary of OEIM for NSS Sample .............................................. 251. ty. Table 5.52: Coefficients of Predictors to OEIM for NSS Sample ................................ 252. ve r. si. Table 6.1: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Positive Reasons of Learning Chinese Language ......................................................................................................... 258 Table 6.2: Ethnic-based Reasons of the Importance of Learning Chinese Language .. 260. ni. Table 6.3: Non-ethnic-based Reasons of the Importance of Learning Chinese Language ....................................................................................................................................... 269. U. Table 6.4: Negative Perspectives of Learning Chinese Language ................................ 278 Table 6.5: Malaysian Chinese Secondary School Students’ Perspectives on Malaysian Education Improvement ................................................................................................ 281 Table 6.6: Ethnic-based Areas of Malaysian Education Improvement ........................ 282 Table 6.7: General Areas of Malaysian Education Improvement ................................. 293 Table 7.1: The Comparison of Chinese Ethnic Identity Characteristics between Tan Chee Beng’s (1988a) Framework and the Proposed Modified Category .............................. 363. xxiii.

(25) Table 7.2: Top Five Ranking of the Ethnic-based Reasons for the Importance of Learning Chinese Language by School Type ............................................................................... 365. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. Table 7.3: Top Five Ranking of the Ethnic-based Areas of Malaysian Education Improvement by School Type ....................................................................................... 366. xxiv.

(26) LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS. :. Affirmation and Belonging. CCMTE. :. Students’ perspectives on comprehensive Chinese mother tongue education. CCP. :. Chinese Communist Party. CLLeisure. :. Chinese language as leisure language. CLPre. :. Chinese language preference in ethnic-based cultural activities. CLPro. :. Chinese language proficiency. CLStudy. :. Chinese language as study language. CLTSE. :. Chinese language teacher in supporting ethnic-learning. CLUD. :. Chinese language usage in various common domains. E&IbI. :. Exploration & Individual-based Interpretation. GA-ICLL-CCMTE. :. Students’ perspectives on government’s approaches toward the importance of Chinese language in life and comprehensive Chinese mother tongue education. ay. al. M. of. ty. si. Higher order thinking skills. :. Students’ perspectives on the importance of Chinese language in life. ICSS. :. Independent Chinese Secondary Schools. KMT. :. Chinese Nationalist Party, “Kuomintang”. MBMMBI. :. Upholding Malay language, strengthening English language (Memartabatkan Bahasa Malaysia Memperkukuh Bahasa Inggeris). MCA. :. Malaysian Chinese Association. MCAMECC. :. Malaysian Chinese Association Chinese Education Central Committee. MCP. :. Malayan Communist Party. MIC. :. Malaysian Indian Congress. ve r. ICLL. ni. :. U. HOTS. a. A&B. xxv.

(27) :. Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. MOE. :. Malaysian Ministry of Education. NSS. :. National Secondary Schools. NTPS. :. National Type Primary Schools. NTSS. :. National Type Secondary Schools. OEIM. :. Overall Ethnic Identity Measure. OGO. :. Other group orientation. PCA. :. Principal component analysis. PMR. :. The Lower Secondary Evaluation (Penilaian Menengah Rendah). POL. :. Pupils’ own language. PPSMI. :. The teaching and learning of science and mathematics in English (Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan Matematik Dalam Bahasa Inggeris). PSSP. :. Personality and Social Structure Perspective Model. SES. :. Socio economic status. :. School as ethnic-learning supportive site. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. MEIM. si. SESS. :. The Malaysian Certificate of Education (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia). SPS. :. Standard Primary Schools. STPS. :. Standard Type Primary Schools. UCSCA. :. United Chinese Malaysia. UCSTA. :. United Chinese School Teachers’ Association of Malaysia. UEC. :. Unified Examination Certificate. UMNO. :. United Malays National Organisation. UNESCO. :. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UNICEF. :. United Nations Children’s Fund. U. ni. ve r. SPM. School. Committees’Association. of. xxvi.

(28) LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Test for Normality: Histogram with Normal Curve and Q-Q Plots…….422. Appendix B: Pearson Correlation Analysis between Items: Ethnic Identity Measure...429. Appendix C: Test for Normality: Histogram with Normal Curve and Q-Q Plots…….432. a. Appendix D: Survey on Ethnic Identity for Malaysian Chinese Students (English. ay. Version)……………………………………………………………………………….433. al. Appendix E: Survey on Ethnic Identity for Malaysian Chinese Students (Chinese. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. Version)……………………………………………………………………………….443. xxvii.

(29) CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH BACKGROUND. 1.1. Introduction. Today when globalization is taking place over the world, linguistic, cultural, racial and religious diversities are elements which embody the unique formation of a society.. a. The phenomenon of rapid migration and transnational mobility has led to different degree. ay. of diversities and disparities in the society. Living in the same society, people with diverse. al. backgrounds, ethnic groups in this context, often bring along their own languages,. M. cultures and lifestyles but concurrently blending these substances together in a common space. Changes, adaptations and negotiations in way of life are inevitably happened in a. of. series of events such as integration, pluralism, assimilation or acculturation, be it a. ty. process of voluntary or by external forces.. si. The co-existence of the diverse and unique ethnic groups are expected to bring. ve r. out the best of their people for nation building. In most of the multi-ethnic and multicultural contexts, ethnic groups of the minority are expected to cope with the majority as the mean of surviving and a better living, socially, politically and economically. They are. ni. encouraged to adopt the society’s mainstream way of life as in language, culture and. U. values, to a certain extent, by abandoning their heritage culture as a way to show their allegiance in order to be accepted to the society (Berry, & Sam, 2014; Cummins, 2001).. Mother tongue language and education are topics under meticulous consideration in the globalization context. Mother tongue language is vital for the reproduction and maintenance of culture – that is, the system of beliefs, values, norms, practice, symbols and ideas, also, “the quintessential symbol of a culture” (Tan, & Santhiram, 2010, p. 16). Put simply, mother tongue language and cultures are important substances where the life 1.

(30) and soul of an ethnic group rooted. Being educated in the mother tongue language is a full spec of an individual in preserving and pursuing the ethnic meanings. These are basic entities that composite their individual identity per se, also group identity. Thus, a pressure of balancing is pushing ethnic minorities either to comply with the mainstream standard or retain the non-mainstream that expresses more in their ethnic characteristics. In Malaysia, as an ethnically diverse society,1 mother tongue education and ethnic. a. identity continue to be highly contestable issues. Mother tongue education along with a. ay. second and, or third language have so far been the educational reality especially at the. al. primary education level. However, the noises of eliminating mother tongue education is. M. constantly heard. In particular, Chinese education as comprehensive mother tongue education or the learning of Chinese language, by means of Mandarin language,. of. exclusively under the Malaysian education system remains controversial at the national stage. At different level of acceptance and practice, Malaysian Chinese welcome Chinese. ty. education as part of their heritage. Within the Chinese community, Chinese language and. si. Chinese education function as ethnic-based features to unite them as an ethnic minority. ve r. group, which also contribute to their ethnic identity. Thence, Chinese language, Chinese education and Malaysian Chinese ethnic identity have been intricately intertwined. U. ni. historically, socially and psychologically.. 1 The making of ‘race’, or ‘ethnocracy’ among the multi-ethnic population of Malaysia are largely constructed by the British colonial practices and ideology of social and economic order, with segregation of the Chinese and Tamil immigrants geographically, economically, and socially from the local population (Hirschman, 1986; Wade, 2009). In this study, ‘ethnic’, or ‘ethnicity’ are used to denote the psychological dimension of group identification, not of the structured group boundaries.. 2.

(31) 1.2. Problem Statement. Former colonial independent nations including Malaysia often essentialize ethnicity for the purpose of government to distinguish ethnic groups by simply assuming inherently different cultural and behavioural traits (Lian, 1997). From the authoritydefined, Malaysian Chinese is simply an ethnic group with typical Chinese characteristics and Chinese ethnic identity. In this case, Chinese ethnic identity is essentially linked to. a. Chinese language and education. Socio-historically, the post-war and post-independence. ay. Chinese identity and “Chineseness” of Malaysian Chinese are intertwined with the. al. preservation and transmission of Chinese language and culture through education. M. (Shamsul, 1999; Tan, 1988a).. Chinese language is generally perceived as the mother tongue and heritage-based. of. ethnic language of Malaysian Chinese. In retaining Chinese language and education,. ty. Malaysian Chinese believe that the grandiose ethnic culture can go on from a generation. si. to another. Furthermore, within National Education System, the status, recognition and functionality of the mother tongue language is a core value for ethnic minority to preserve. ve r. culture and ethnic identity (Tan, 2007; Watson, 2007). The status quo of Chinese education enable Malaysian Chinese to teach and learn Chinese language by systematic. ni. education planning. However, the restrictions on Chinese education have created much. U. pressure among them. At such, Chinese education is always a struggling ethnic business to fight of among Malaysian Chinese.. The notion of Chinese language and education as the ethnic marker for Malaysian Chinese is popularly imprinted in Malaysian society. Chinese education as a Chinese symbol is further accentuated over and over again at the national stage especially by. 3.

(32) members and supporters of Chinese education movement 2 and politicians. 3 Through years of frequent publicity and opposition against the government’s policy on Chinese education, the ethnic image of Chinese education is indeed becoming more significant. 4 In this case, the continuity of Chinese ethnic identity is seemingly associated with the learning and maintenance of Chinese language and education. The research problem embarks upon the ostensible idea that Malaysian Chinese ethnic identity is constructed. a. through Chinese education yet all the while neglecting the voice of the students. The. ay. query of the problem arises in the contemporary context from the views of the students themselves, being the direct receivers of Chinese education under “Malaysianized”. M. al. National Education System.. In the well-planned and structured curriculum of Malaysian education system, the. of. students are taught as a Malaysian citizen in the classroom throughout the whole elementary and secondary schooling. Through subjects such as civics, history, geography. ty. and moral education, “citizenship” is studied from the individual to national level,. si. including the responsibility as a member of the nation, the moral value of carrying out. ve r. race mutual help cooperation as an understanding of the feature of the tradition of each. ni. ethnic, the diversity of culture and religion, people of respect and the same Malaysia, the. U. 2 Chinese education movement comprises of the United Chinese School Committees’ Association of Malaysia (UCSCA) and the United Chinese School Teachers’ Association of Malaysia (UCSTA). Both of the associations function as the guardian of Chinese education by keeping in track and safeguarding the development of Chinese education. They are also inspecting the implementation of national policies and expressing objections against those being seen as threats to Chinese education.. 3 Chinese education is being utilized in attempt to win over supports and votes by Chinese-based political parties such as Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and Democratic Action Party (DAP). Both claim to fight and protect the fair and just treatment of mother tongue education, Chinese education in particular. For example, the rebranded Malaysian Chinese Education Consultative Council by MCA is said to represent the voices of Chinese (MCA online, 21 January 2016) (http://www.mca.org.my/2/Content/SinglePage?_param1=04-082016-105484-08-201604&_param2=TS), speech by Chong Sin Woon that MCA Youth to keep fighting for Chinese schools’ rights (The Star online, 25 July 2016) (http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/07/25/mca-youth-to-keep-fighting-for-chinese-schools-rights/), press statement by Lim Guan Eng on the status and position of Chinese Primary Schools can only be guaranteed when Barison Nasional (BN) sees mother-tongue education as a source of unity rather than a weapon for disunity (DAP speech archive, 23 March 2005) (http://dapmalaysia.org/all-archive/English/2005/mar05/lge/lge091.htm), and etc.. 4 UCSCA and UCSTA constantly issue statements in press and publications to express their firm stand against any new education policies that jeopardize Chinese education and erode the quality of Chinese Primary Schools to use Chinese language as the main medium of instruction.. 4.

(33) right and duty of the society as citizen (Balakrishnan, 2010; Tejima, 2007). In the long term and constant immersion of the knowledge and practice of being part of the multiethnic nation, the Chinese secondary school students are growing up constructing their own identity through the interaction of ethnicity and nationhood. They are the receivers of the identity as being imposed on them through education. The literatures (Lim, 1999; Hou, 2006; Tan, 2004, 2008; Wang, 1988, 1991a) have not learnt of the students’ views. a. as an important growing body of the society. They lack the platform to speak of their. ay. opinions concerning issues related to ethnic identity, Chinese language and Malaysian. al. education.. M. As scholars review, Malaysian Chinese ethnic identity is multidimensional, socially and culturally localized and associated with different symbols in a changing. of. situation (Pue, & Kaur, 2014; Shamsul, 1999; C.B. Tan, 1997; Tan, 2000a; 2000b; Yao, 2009). The current generation of young Malaysian Chinese students are new generation. ty. who are born and being raised up as Malaysians. They do not bare the direct historical. si. burden from Japanese invasion and occupation, British colonialism, and series of. ve r. incidents leading to the independence and the formation of Malaysia. Although family line and lineage are descended from the Chinese ancestors, their identity is bounded to. ni. the present day localization, space and experiences. As a matter of fact, Malaysian. U. Chinese secondary school students’ ethnic identity is a socio-psychological construct bounded by the current Malaysian education context. Their ethnic identity in relation to Chinese education cannot be simply equated to the society’s general perception. Their ethnic identity is a much more complex problem in the educational context. More often than not, studies have discussed descriptively about the influence of Chinese education on Chinese ethnic identity, but none of them survey on the students by using quantitative method.. 5.

(34) Throughout nearly six decades of independence, the country advocated and propagated the concept of nationhood through a didactic and pedagogical approach to educational development based on ethnic stratification (Brown, 2007). Under the tensions between nation-building and ethnicity, Chinese education is being put in a disputable position as incompatible for national integration and unity. 5 The ground for argument behind this takes on the distinctive Chinese ethnic identity vis-a-vis the identity of. a. majority Malay ethnic group and other ethnic groups. The arguments go on to assert that. ay. with the existence of Chinese education, Malaysian Chinese retain and embrace their “Chineseness” this is the hindrance to the formation of a common national identity.6 Once. al. again, Chinese education is placed at the heart of the identity of Malaysian Chinese. In. M. this regard, post-independence National Education Policy aims to educate the new. of. generations of Malaysians by bridging up the diversification among the ethnic groups.. National Educational Policy, after a series of careful reviews and inspections, put. ty. forward the same philosophy, ideology, and fundamental educational principles in. si. National Education System where different type of vernacular primary schools co-exist.. ve r. In other words, the same syllabus, content of knowledge, academic skills and values are designed and implemented according to age for all students undergo national education. ni. regardless of the language of instruction. In this context, Malaysian Chinese students who. U. enrol in Chinese primary schools undergo a “Malaysianized” education just like any other. 5 Vernacular schools, including Chinese Primary Schools create ethnic boundary because these schools barricade the social interaction between multi-ethnic students (Ahmad, & Yusof, 2010), lead to prejudice and stereotype (Zainal, & Salleh, 2010) and erode the serious desire to unite all ethnic groups (Puteh, 2010).. 6 Alternative point of view suggests that the vernacular schools system is cause of widening the gap among ethnic groups. Chinese education, in enabling the development of Chinese language, is the source that leads to the estrangement and disunity of the nation. For example, the suggestion to “Malaysianized the spirit of SJK (C) education system (Utusan online, 26 October 2014) (http://www.utusan.com.my/rencana/memalaysiakan-semangat-sistem-pendidikan-sjkc-1.16787), time to have political courage for one-language-medium schools (Utusan online, 27 September 2015) (http://www.utusan.com.my/rencana/sudah-tiba-masa1.140247/teo-kok-seong-1.140270), and etc.. 6.

(35) ethnic groups in the country. Chinese primary schools share the same objectives, contents and syllabuses but using Chinese language as instructional language.. The reservation of vernacular schools save Chinese education at primary level under Razak Report (1956). Though the syllabus is locally bound, the learning of Chinese language and through this mother tongue provide opportunities for Chinese students to discover Chinese cultures, values and ethnic events at primary school age. Unlike Chinese. a. primary schools, Chinese education at secondary level was phased out under Rahman. ay. Talib Report (1960). What is left for Chinese education in public-government secondary. al. schools is merely a mother tongue language study subject. The use of Chinese language. M. as medium of instruction is maintained only in private-non-government secondary schools to function independently by Chinese community. The exposure to different level. of. of Chinese language learning and education in National Secondary Schools (NSS), National-Type Secondary Schools (NTSS) and Independent Chinese Secondary Schools. ty. (ICSS) offers the different adoption of Chinese’ worldviews and experiences. The. si. problem of Chinese ethnic identity is undoubtedly complicated for Malaysian Chinese. ve r. secondary school students who undergo such complex and distinct Chinese language learning and education experiences. The influences of Chinese education contextual. U. ni. factors to Chinese students’ ethnic identity remain a puzzle to be unlocked.. 1.3. Research Scope. The research investigation of Malaysian Chinese ethnic identity is pertinent in the field of education. Education serves as an immediate context because it is a process that provides abundance experiences to people from a very young age to adulthood by making up their worldviews and ideologies. The central focus of the research scope is set upon. 7.

(36) Malaysian Chinese secondary school students’ ethnic identity in relation to their respective schooling experiences and different level and exposure to Chinese education. Given that ethnicity is a matter of fact to these students when it is natural to belong to certain ethnic group in multi-ethnic Malaysia. Socialization plays a vital role in life since young age and so educational experiences provide the first hand social setting to the construction of ethnic identity.. a. Chinese secondary school students are at the adolescence stage which is crucial. ay. for identity formation to take place in life. Ethnic identity might become more salient. al. during adolescence when they confronted with more life experiences. A process of. M. exploration and commitment typically occurs during this period and that leads to a decision in important identity domains (Erikson, 1968). They start to explore the. of. alternatives in life and eventually build up their self-image and identity. Each of them experiences different degree of identity-discovery, whether foreclosure or moratorium. ty. which might or not lead to identity-achieved, as Marcia (1966) proposed. The search of a. si. meaningful ethnic identity can lead to a wide range of emotional reactions, both positive. ve r. and negative (Phinney, 2001). Therefore, the process in searching of self and establishing of ethnic identity of Malaysian Chinese secondary school students in relation to Chinese. U. ni. education is appropriate and worth a closer investigation.. Indicated as mother tongue education, Chinese education rises above others and. becomes the primary choice of education for majority Chinese parents at primary school level. The percentage of Chinese children to enrol in Chinese primary schools increases from 92% in year 2000 to 96% in year 2011 (Malaysia, 2013a; UCSTA, 2015). There are several secondary education options available for these Chinese primary school graduates. A great majority of them proceed to public-government National (Type) Secondary Schools with Malay medium education while only a minority few opt to enrol. 8.