SPECIES DIVERSITY OF ASTERACEAE

Tekspenuh

(1)AROUND UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN JELI CAMPUS, KELANTAN. by. NUR ERWANI BINTI MOHAMAD RADZI. A report submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Natural Resources Science) with Honours. FACULTY OF EARTH SCIENCE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN. 2019. FYP FSB. SPECIES DIVERSITY OF ASTERACEAE.

(2) I declare that this thesis entitled “Species Diversity of Asteraceae around Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus, Kelantan” is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any degree.. Signature. : ________________________. Name. : ________________________. Date. : ________________________. i. FYP FSB. DECLARATION.

(3) “I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Applied Science (Natural Resource Science) with Honors”. Signature. : …………………………...... Name of Supervisor. : …………………………….. Date. : …………………………….. ii. FYP FSB. APPROVAL.

(4) This thesis is possible with the kind support and help of many individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. First and foremost, I would express my grateful to God Almighty for giving me strength, good health, and peace of mind in order to finish this thesis. I would like to express my greatest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Radhiah Zakaria, who imparting her knowledge and expertise, involve and contribute in stimulating the suggestion, and always motivating and help me to complete this thesis especially in writing this report. Then, I would also like to thanks to Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus especially Faculty of Earth Science for the opportunity given to do this project to final year students. I would also extend my gratitude to the lab assistants, Cik Hasimah binti Hassan for her help and guidance during the process of this study. Last but not least, my appreciation also goes to my friends for sharing their knowledge, help, and time for completing this research.. iii. FYP FSB. ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

(5) ABSTRACT. This study was conducted to identify the species diversity of Asteraceae around Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Kelantan. Two methods were used during this study which was random quadrat sampling and general observation method. The random quadrat sampling method was carried out by 20 quadrats with size 1m x 1m distributed within five sampling area in UMK Jeli Campus and Pinggiran UMK area. A total of seven species of Asteraceae was identified and recorded from the random quadrat sampling and a total of 10 additional species was found during general observation. The diversity index for Asteraceae recorded around the study area which represented by Shannon Index, H’ is 0.87 while the richness index of Asteraceae is 0.95. From the data record, the species of Asteraceae with the highest diversity is Ageratum conyzoides and the lowest diversity is Centratherum punctatum with diversity index of 0.19 and 0.04 respectively. All 17 species of Asteraceae recorded was compared in several characteristics such as vegetative, floral, and fruit. Then, based on the comparison table, a dichotomous key identification of Asteraceae was constructed to help students to identify and recognise the species.. iv. FYP FSB. Species Diversity of Asteraceae around Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus, Kelantan.

(6) ABSTRAK. Kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji kepelbagaian spesies Asteraceae di sekeliling kawasan Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Kampus Jeli, Kelantan. Dua kaedah telah digunakan di dalam kajian ini ialah pensampelan kuadrat secara rawak dan pemerhatian umum. Kaedah pensampelan kuadrat secara rawak dijalankan dengan menggunakan 20 kuadrat yang bersaiz 1m x 1m yang disebarkan di dalam lima kawasan pensampelan di UMK kampus Jeli dan kawasan Pinggiran UMK. Sebanyak tujuh spesies Asteraceae telah dikenal pasti dan direkodkan daripada kaedah pensampelan kuadrat secara rawak dan pertambahan 10 spesies telah dijumpai melalui kaedah pemerhatian umum. Indeks kepelbagaian untuk Asteraceae yang telah direkodkan di kawasan kajian yang diwakili oleh Shannon Index, H’ ialah 0.87 sementara indeks kekayaan bagi Asteraceae ialah 0.95. Daripada data yang telah direkodkan, spesies Asteracea yang mempunyai kepelbagaian tertinggi adalah Ageratum conyzoides dan kepelbagaian yang terendah adalah Centratherum punctatum dengan indeks kepelbagaian masing-masing ialah 0.19 dan 0.04. Kesemua 17 spesies Asteraceae yang telah direkodkan telah dibandingkan dengan beberapa ciriciri seperti vegetatif, bunga, dan buah. Kemudian, berdasarkan jadual perbandingan yang telah dibuat, pengenalan kekunci dikotomi telah dibina untuk membantu pelajarpelajar untuk mengkaji dan mengenal pasti spesies.. v. FYP FSB. Kepelbagaian Spesies Asteraceae Di Sekeliling Kawasan Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Kampus Jeli, Kelantan.

(7) PAGE DECLARATION. i. APPROVAL. ii. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. iii. ABSTRACT. iv. ABSTRAK. v. TABLE OF CONTENT. vi. LIST OF TABLES. ix. LIST OF FIGURES. x. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. xi. LIST OF SYMBOLS. xiii. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONS 1.1. Background of the Study. 1. 1.2. Problem Statement. 2. 1.3. Objectives. 3. 1.4. Scope of Study. 3. 1.5. Significance of Study. 3. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. 2.2. Classification of Asteraceae. 4. 2.1.1. Subfamily. 4. Morphology of Asteraceae. 6. 2.2.1. Leaves. 6. 2.2.2. Inflorescence. 6. vi. FYP FSB. TABLE OF CONTENTS.

(8) Pollen. 8. 2.3. Medicinal Value. 10. 2.4. Economic Value. 12. 2.5. Plot Sampling. 13. CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Study Area. 15. 3.2. Materials. 17. 3.3. Methods. 17. 3.3.1. Quadrat Sampling. 17. 3.3.2. General Observation. 19. 3.3.3. Herbarium Specimen. 19. 3.3.4. Species Identification. 20. 3.4. Data Analysis. 21. 3.4.1. Diversity Index. 21. a). Shannon Diversity Index. 21. b). Shannon Evenness Index. 21. 3.4.2. Richness Index. 22. 3.4.3. Abundance Parameter. 22. 3.4.4. Comparison Table and Key Identification. 23. CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Floristic Composition. 24. 4.2. Species Diversity and Evenness. 27. 4.3. Richness Index. 29. 4.4. Abundance Parameter. 30. vii. FYP FSB. 2.2.3.

(9) Comparison Table of Asteraceae. 32. 4.6. Key Identification of Asteraceae. 37. 4.7. Species Description. 39. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1. Conclusion. 42. 5.2. Recommendation. 43. REFERENCES. 44. APPENDIX A. Final Year Project Planning. 48. APPENDIX B. Total Species of Asteraceae Recorded With Random. 49. Quadrat Sampling APPENDIX C. Description of Species of Asteraceae From General Observation. viii. 50. FYP FSB. 4.5.

(10) No.. TITLE. PAGE. 4.1. Asteraceae found in Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus,. 25. Kelantan 4.2. Asteraceae recorded through random quadrat sampling around. 26. UMK Jeli Campus 4.3. Species Diversity and Evenness Index. 28. 4.4. Species Richness. 29. 4.5. Frequency and Density of Asteraceae. 30. 4.6. Important Value Index of Asteraceae. 31. 4.7. Comparison of habitat, habitus, and stem characteristics. 33. 4.8. Comparison of leaves characteristics. 34. 4.9. Comparison of flower/inflorescence characteristics. 35. 4.10. Comparison of fruit characteristics. 36. ix. FYP FSB. LIST OF TABLES.

(11) No.. TITLE. PAGE. 2.1. Cross-section of common sunflower (Helianthus annuus) head. 7. 2.2. Type of Asteraceae head. 8. 3.1. A map illustrating the study area location. 16. 3.2. Unscaled map of the sampling site. 18. 3.3. Random quadrat sampling process. 18. 3.4. The prepared herbarium sample. 20. 4.1. Ageratum conyzoides in the study area. 27. 4.2. Ageratum conyzoides. 39. 4.3. Adenostemma viscosum. 39. 4.4. Vernonia cinerea. 40. 4.5. Emilia sonchifolia. 40. 4.6. Eclipta prostrata. 41. 4.7. Tridax procumbens. 41. 4.8. Centratherum punctatum. 41. x. FYP FSB. LIST OF FIGURES.

(12) UMK. Universiti Malaysia Kelantan. H’. Shannon Diversity Index. IVi. Important Value Index. xi. FYP FSB. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

(13) %. Percentages. ∑. Summation. ≡. Equal. <. Lower than. >. More than. xii. FYP FSB. LIST OF SYMBOLS.

(14) INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Background of the Study Asteraceae (Compositae) is one of the largest family among flowering plants. that can be recognised as aster, daisy or family of sunflower (Kim, Choi, & Jansen, 2005). Flowering plants can be well-defined as a seed-bearing plant where the seeds are contained in the ovary. This family consists of more than 1600 genera and 23,000 species. The term Asteraceae is derived from the type of genus while the older name of Asteraceae which is Compositae is referring to the inflorescence characteristics of this family (Rahman et al., 2008). Asteraceae is one of the eight families that allowed to have two acceptable names by The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Bohm & Stuessy, 2001). The member of Asteraceae has a significant number of herbs or shrubs but also have a few trees and climbing herbs (Adedeji & Jewoola, 2008). There also have a few genera in this family that are aquatic such as Megalodonta (Bohm & Stuessy, 2001). Asteraceae is very advanced and are easily recognized with the worldwide distribution. The distribution of Asteraceae can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The preferable habitat in which this family thrives is in the temperate. 1. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 1.

(15) and Stuessy (2001) stated that this family is more abundant in higher elevation regions of the trophic but there also have a few members that are fond of hot and lowland rainforests. Though, they also sometimes occur solitarily by occupying small patches of forest. Based on Ng (1989), Asteraceae in Malaysia have about 30 genera with 50 species naturalised. This family has varied considerably of vegetative features. Some upright sunflowers will be standing up about 1-3 m tall while most of the species in this family are in smaller size down to the same level on the ground. There also some large trees in this family such as the outrageous Vernonia arborea in Malaysia which reach more than 30 m tall (Bohm & Stuessy, 2001).. 1.2. Problem Statement Most of the study of the species diversity of flowering plants in Malaysia did. not solely focus on this family. There also have no information data about species diversity of this family around Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Kelantan. This study aims to find and gather all the information about the species diversity of Asteraceae present around UMK Jeli Campus, Kelantan.. 2. FYP FSB. region and also some tropical region in cooler montane (Rahman et al., 2008). Bohm.

(16) Objectives 1. To identify species diversity and richness of Asteraceae around UMK Jeli Campus. 2. To construct species checklist and identification key of Asteraceae around UMK Jeli Campus.. 1.4. Scope of Study This study focuses on the species that are in herbs or shrub form only. The. limitation height of the species in this study was 1 meter. The specific area in this study is inside UMK Jeli Campus and the road along UMK Jeli Campus to the residential area of Taman Pinggiran UMK.. 1.5. Significance of the Study This study helps to identify the species of Asteraceae that present in the study. area. The comparison table and key identification constructed in this study will help the students in UMK Jeli campus to recognize and differentiate the generative and vegetative characteristics of the species. The herbarium specimen from this study was deposited and become an additional collection in the Natural Resouces Museum, UMK Jeli campus.. 3. FYP FSB. 1.3.

(17) LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1. Classification of Asteraceae Asteraceae is characterised by the arrangement of floret on a receptacle in. centripetally which developing the heads and surrounded by bracts, by anthers fused in a ring with the pollen pushed or brushed out by the style, and by the presence of achenes (cypselas) usually with a pappus. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, there is the biggest change in Asteraceae systematic were the classification of species to their subfamily was based on the molecular works (Funk, Susanna, Steussy, & Robinson, 2009).. 2.1.1. Subfamily Early discoveries of subfamily in Asteraceae is divided into two large. subfamilies which are the Cichorioideae and Asteroideae. The tribes in Cichorioideae are Mutisieae, Cardueae, Lactuceae, Vernonieae, and Arctoteae while Inuleae, Astereae, Anthemideae, Senecioneae, Calenduleae, Heliantheae, Eupatorieae are the tribes in subfamily Asteroideae (Bremer et al., 1992).. 4. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 2.

(18) general recognition of two subfamily in Asteraceae which is Cichorioideae and Asteroideae is only until 1987 because of the change in the subfamily classification after the new finding of variation in chloroplast genome. Jansen and Palmer (1987) discovered that there a small group of taxa in tribe Mutisieae was actually the sister group to the family. They revealed in their study that 22-kilobase pair inversion of chloroplast DNA was shared by 57 genera (Asteraceae), but absent in subtribe Barnadesiinae of the tribe Mutsieae among 80 species that representing Asteraceae and 10 putatively related families in their analysis and suggest that the Barnadesiinae represent the most primitive lineage in Asteraceae. After that, Barnadesiinae was reclassified as the subfamily Barnadesioideae after the acceptance by most researchers because of the parsimonious hypothesis which is the Barnadesiinae never had the inversion in the first place (Katinas et al., 2007). Funk and Chan (2009) mentioned that the subfamily Asteroideae is a welldefined group in both morphologically and molecularly. This subfamily has many large tribes with 62% species found are within the clades of Asteroideae. The subfamily Barnadesioideae also can be distinguished easily by both molecular and morphological characters. This subfamily consists a small group with only one tribe, nine genera, and 92 species. In another hand, the subfamily Cichorioideae was started out with only one tribe which is Cichorieae. This subfamily grew in number through the number of individuals until it encompassed all tribes that were not in Asteroideae.. 5. FYP FSB. Then, according to Katinas, Crisci, Tellería, Barreda, and Palazzesi (2007), the.

(19) Morphology of Asteraceae. 2.2.1. Leaves The morphology of Asteraceae is widely varied in leaves, reproductive. features, and the variation of heads characteristics. Adedeji and Jewoola (2008) state that the leaves of this family are simple. It also has pinnately lobed in some species and has prickly in some genera. Then, according to Bohm and Stuessy (2001), the species in this family have varied widely of leaves. Clibadium grandifolium (Heliantheae) from Costa Rica is an example of species that have very large leaves that nearly 1 m long. Some of the species have small leaves or almost non-existent and some leaves are very spiny for example Carduus spp. There also have some members of this family which usually are from genus Artemisia that have hairy leaf surface. Some other leaves in this family covered with the variable of indumentum such as variability in their densities of the hair, lengths, and colors (Bohm & Stuessy, 2001).. 2.2.2. Inflorescence The most distinctive feature in Asteraceae is their inflorescence structure. It is. the highly compressed inflorescence branch system called the capitulum or flower head, in which all the flowers are attached to a receptacle that is surrounded by involucral bracts (Broholm, Teeri, & Elomaa, 2014). The heads of Asteraceae (Figure 2.1) is very important part as it has variation in structures. The arrangement into higher levels of aggregation or capitulescences is one of the variations in heads. The variation or modification of heads is importance to. 6. FYP FSB. 2.2.

(20) solitary or with just a few heads such as Helianthus. Nevertheless, the heads also sometimes resemble inflorescences of single flowers (Bohm & Stuessy, 2001).. Figure 2.1: Cross-section of common sunflower (Helianthus annuus) head Source: Bohm and Stuessy (2001). The heads can be homogamous or heterogamous. The homogamous head will have all the similar flower while flower in the margin of the heterogamous head will have different morphology and function with centrally located flower (Broholm et al., 2014). As indicated by Simpson (2010) the heads of Asteraceae have five general types (Figure 2.2) which are the first is discoid, with only disk flowers and all this type is bisexual. The second type is disciform. This type has only disk flower and has a mixture of pistillate and sterile with bisexual and staminate in the same or different heads. The third type of head is radiate. This head has a central disk flower, either bisexual or male, and peripheral ray flower, either female or sterile. The fourth head ligulate. This head has all ray flowers with 5-toothed corolla apices typically. The last type of head is bilabiate. This type of head will have all bilabiate flower. Bohm & Stuessy (2001) said that the basic reproductive unit for Asteraceae is their head or capitulum. The specific reproductive structure in the Asteraceae head is 7. FYP FSB. taxonomic as it will decide the level of the hierarchy. The heads sometimes occur in.

(21) family, the basic type of corolla type is tubular and five-lobed and the others presumably corolla have been derived through evolution.. Figure 2.2: Type of Asteraceae head Source: Jepson (1993). 2.2.3. Pollen Asteraceae has a distinctive pollen characteristic and can be easily recognized.. However, Farco and Dematteis (2017) mention that pollen grains of Asteraceae show some of the most complex and diverse among flowering plants. The pollen is isopolar and radially symmetric with the compound apertures. The pollen is traditionally separated into two groups by Paleopalynologist based on the gross morphology of the pollen grain and the liguliflorae-type or tubuliflorae-type characterized by echinolophate pollen. The liguliflorae-type is usually found in the Cichorieae while the tubuliflorae-type is found in many other tribes (Zavada & de Villiers, 2000) As mentioned by Zavada and de Villiers (2000) also by using the gross morphology of extant pollen three pollen types can be recognised which is psilate, 8. FYP FSB. corolla which most noticeable part of flower, stamens, style, ovary, and pappus. In this.

(22) which is helianthoid, senecioid, arctotoid, anthemoid, and the pollen type without designated patterns. The pollen among Cichoriodeae and Asteroideae are mostly the pollen type without designated patterns whole for Barnadesioideae the pollen type is quite similar to echinolophate pollen of liguliflorae-type but with the non-existence of spines. The pollen features are important in taxonomic. The pollen morphology of Asteraceae is useful in taxonomic discussion in deciding the changes at generic and subgeneric level (Farco & Dematteis, 2017). As mentioned by Bohm and Stuessy (2001), the pollen system presentation in Asteraceae is designed to promote outcrossing, with the receptive inner surfaces of the styles remaining closed and inaccessible until they push upward through the stamen column, and the followed by sweeping the pollen outward to facilitate dispersal. After than that it will open and become receptive to pollen from other florets, heads, or plants.. 9. FYP FSB. echinate, and lophate pollen. These type of pollen have five major types of pollen wall.

(23) Medicinal Value As mentioned by Koc, Isgor, Isgor, Moghaddam, and Yildirim (2015) many. members of Asteraceae have shown to have pharmacological activities. A compound such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and diterpenoids contain in Asteraceae are important in phytochemical activity. Taraxacum is the genus that first mention that can cure eyes diseases in the 13th century and its species have been used for diverse cures since then without any special differentiation and until now its popular for its effects as an amarum and cholereticum against absence of appetite and disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (Fritz & Saukel, 2011). In traditional medicine, the fruit of Onopordum tauricum is used as a spice to treat liver disease. There also some other species in Onopordum that used a diuretic. Onopordum acanthium roots and flowers both can be used as a diuretic. The flower also can be used as antipyretic and the roots also can be used for a cure a stomach ache (Koc et al., 2015) Scott, Springfield, and Coldrey (2004) stated that in essential oil from subfamily Tubuliflorae have a great variety of sesquiterpene lactones as well as acetylenic compounds that important in medical interest. Another species of Asteraceae that been used as a medicine is European yarrow. As mentioned by Bidlack and Jansky (2014) this species has been used to ease the discomfort of teething toddlers. This is due to that its rhizomes that contain anesthetic that will numb the tongue and gums when chewed. Scorzonera hispanica is mainly known as a vegetable used for salads or a side dish. This species is being used in traditional medicine to cure the disorder of stomach, gallbladder, and liver. In addition, until the 16th century, the species was considered. 10. FYP FSB. 2.3.

(24) plant against hemorrhages caused by snake venoms was confirmed in a study about 10 years ago. In addition, another species in Asteraceae that were used as medicinal is Arctium lappa that has been cultivated for Chinese traditional medicine for centuries. This plant has a long ethnopharmacological history as a blood purifier and tonic. Despite the lack of clinical trials, this plant also has been used in the treatment of rheumatism, ulcers, swelling, sores, stomach-ache, and also headaches (da Silva et al., 2005). The flowering head of Chrysanthemum morifolium has also used in Chinese traditional medicine and folklore to treat disease like Parkinson and nervous ailments such as headaches, tinnitus, and night blindness. They used the flowering heads as herbal tea. This plant also has been used in serious treatments such as maintaining liver health, respiratory and vascular disorder, AIDS, and also HIV. This plant can detox the body as it has sedative, anti-bacterial, antioxidant properties, and stimulates cellular regeneration which is thought to cleanse and detoxify the body (da Silva et al., 2005). According to da Silva et al. (2005), the plants in genus Artemisia can produce many eudesmanolides, which is the group of sesquiterpene lactones in the greatest antibacterial activity and anti-inflammatory properties. Besides that, in traditional European medicine, Artemisia dracunculus is commonly used as a choleretic and treatment for amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhea. This plant has been tested with a number of clinical trials for the effect of moxibustion and the efficiency of treatment of allergic rhinitis, rhino conjunctivitis, hepatitis B, and asthma.. 11. FYP FSB. effective against snake bite. According to Fritz and Saukel (2011), the potency of this.

(25) Economic Value Most of the species in this family have their own value in economic includes. some food, ornamental cultivars, and used locally or industrially. The seeds of Helianthus annuus have always been used as flour for making bread, snacks, a source of purple dye, and also extracted for oil (Davey & Jan, 2010). According to Charney (2010), the current uses of sunflower is for production of oil. The seeds are composed of 50% fat and 20% protein (Davey & Jan, 2010). Sunflower seed oils are used primarily in cooking as it contains more Vitamin E than other cooking oil. The oil extraction also can be used for making soaps and paints (Charney, 2010). Another contribution of sunflower oil is it may be an ecological source of biodiesel. According to Davey and Jan (2010), sunflower oil has been considering as a source of biofuel by the compelled nation as the price of crude oil on the world market is escalating. Sunflower oil is considered the second most suitable oilseed for biodiesel after rapeseed because of its high polyunsaturated fatty acids. Charney (2010) has stated that The National Sunflower Association has tracked great interest in the construction of small processing facilities for sunflower biodiesel production. In western Massachusetts, a group of five farms has formed the Hilltown Farmers Biodiesel Cooperative for production of sunflower oil biodiesel. As indicated by da Silva et al. (2005) there also many members of Asteraceae that are important as cut ornamental flowers and as aromatic and medicinal plant. According to Davey and Jan (2010), Spanish explorers in the 1550s may have been introduced the sunflower from North America to Europe as an ornamental plant. Yarrow is one of the most weed that exhibits a characteristic of aromatic aroma. Anthemis nobilis also has a history of use in aromatic. The flower of the plant is used. 12. FYP FSB. 2.4.

(26) aromatherapy and massage. Then, The members in genus Dendranthema is also traditionally using as ornamental and decoration plants. However, recently there are efforts that have been made to use the plants in the cosmetic industry in the production of soaps and incense (da Silva et al., 2005). Furthermore, according to Özbek, Özbek, Başer, Cabi, and Vural (2016), one of the genus belong to Anthemideae tribe which is Cota has its own value. This genus is mainly distributed in Europe excluding northern Europe, North Africa, Caucasia, and Central Asia. Some of the Cota species is used for several purposes such as drug, foods, and dyes. The flower of this genus also used as antiseptic and healing herbs. The natural flavonoids and the essential oil is the main components that were used in antiseptic and healing herbs which broadly used as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and also sedative agents (Özbek et al., 2016).. 2.5. Plot Sampling There are three general categories that fall under vegetative sampling method. which is a plot-based method, point-based method, and plotless method. The former requires analysing vegetation in a specified sampling are called a plot while point sampling is a type of plot sampling since the smallest plot size is a point. The plotless methods operate by making observations along transects or at random points in the entire plant community (Tiner, 1999). A plot or quadrat sampling method is the most popular method for ecological research. A quadrat is a frame that is laid down to mark out a specific area of the community to be sampled. Within the quadrat frame, the occurrence of plants is 13. FYP FSB. as a fragrance in shampoos, soap, and perfumes and as a treatment agent in.

(27) rectangular, or circular and also can be any appropriate size (Baxter, 2014). The sampling size for quadrat are depended on the type of plant community being evaluated especially if the study of diversity. Plot size also varies according to the complexity of the vegetation pattern. The more diverse and interspersed the vegetation, the smaller the plot size for efficient and accurate estimating (Tiner, 1999). The number of plots required should be sufficient to at least the minimum area determination for the community is covered. In ecological studies, the number of plots is either determined by an assessment of minimum area or by ensuring that 1 to 20% of the stand is sampled. One unbiased representative plot which is greater than the minimum area is satisfactory for general classification purposes, but multiple small plots which in total are greater than minimum area are the best for ecological studies that requiring statistical analysis (Tiner, 1999).. 14. FYP FSB. recorded using an appropriate measure of abundance. Quadrats may be square,.

(28) MATERIALS AND METHODS. 3.1. Study Area The study area for this research is located at Universiti Malaysia Kelantan. (UMK) Jeli Campus and Taman Pinggiran, Gemang Area, Jeli District, Kelantan (Figure 3.1). The coordinate of UMK Jeli Campus is at 5.7445°N 101.8642°E. Jeli is one of the districts of Kelantan bordering the state of Perak and Thailand. The surrounding area between Jeli to Kota Bharu is mainly vegetated by lowland and hill dipterocarp forests, which surrounded by agricultural plantation and infrastructure development. Jeli is also recognised as wildlife area because 80% of land in Jeli is a forested area (Zulkurnain & Hambali, 2016). 15. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 3.

(29) FYP FSB Figure 3.1: A map illustrating the study area location Source: Google Earth (2018). 16.

(30) Materials For this study, the material used for quadrat samplings is PVC, raffia strings,. tape measure, and quadrat record sheet. Then, the tools used for collecting the samples of Asteraceae at field area for herbarium specimens mainly trowel (digger), scissors, knife, airtight polythene bag, old newspapers, and GPS. For herbarium, the materials used are field book, newspaper, secateurs, 70% ethanol, tag, pressing wood, board, camera, and herbarium sheet.. 3.3. Methods. 3.3.1. Quadrat Sampling The field investigation was operated at five sampling sites (Figure 3.2) of the. study area by using random quadrat sampling. The total number of quadrats used in this study were 20. The area of sampling location are inside UMK Jeli Campus and Taman Pinggiran UMK area. One quadrat with the size of 1m × 1m was thrown randomly (Figure 3.3) at each sampling area.. 17. FYP FSB. 3.2.

(31) FYP FSB Figure 3.2: Unscaled map of the sampling site. The data collection of species was taken in each quadrat. The information such as their latitude and longitude, the type, and the number of species was recorded in tabulate data. Then, the methods were repeated starting from throwing the quadrat until record the data four times at each sampling area.. (a). (b). Figure 3.3: Random quadrat sampling process (a) Throwing quadrat and (b) Record the data of Asteraceae. 18.

(32) General Observation General observation at the study area also carried out to increase the list of. Asteraceae diversity in the study area. The area that observed was inside UMK Jeli Campus start from the main gate. The observation was continued along the road from the second gate of UMK Jeli Campus to Taman Pinggiran UMK. The location where the Asteraceae found during the observation is taken by GPS and noted down in a field notebook.. 3.3.3. Herbarium Specimen Each species of Asteraceae present were collected for herbarium specimen.. The specimen was put between newspapers then put into an airtight polythene bag to avoid the specimen become moldy before the heating process, the specimen was preserved by adding 70% of ethanol into the airtight polythene bag. The airtight polythene bag was turned a few time to evenly distribute the ethanol. Then, after all the specimen has been collected and preserved, the herbarium process started with pressing. The specimen was place and kept gently between newspapers. Then, the specimens were kept inside between the pressing wood to put herbarium under pressure. After pressing, the specimens were put into the oven for drying. The temperature used for drying is around 49°C to 50°C for five to seven days depending on the thickness of the specimens. After the specimen completely dried, mounting herbarium specimens by attaching to a herbarium sheet (Figure 3.4) continued.. 19. FYP FSB. 3.3.2.

(33) was put at the bottom right of herbarium sheet with information such as the name of the institution in which the specimens originated, scientific name, family, locality, range, latitude and longitude, habitat, date of collection, the number of the collector, determined by, and remarks.. (a). (b). Figure 3.4: The prepared herbarium sample (a) Ageratum conyzoides (b) Sphagneticola trilobata. 3.3.4. Species Identification Species identification of each specimen of Asteraceae was carried out in. several ways. Firstly, the specimens were identified by using the existing taxonomic binomial keys from as a reference. Then, the specimen was compared with the existing specimen in Natural Resources Museum, UMK to identify any similarities. Another way to identify the specimen is with the help and assistance of expertise and botanist.. 20. FYP FSB. The last steps in the herbarium process are labeling. The label of the species.

(34) were used to check and reconfirm the specimen named and their distribution.. 3.4. Data Analysis. 3.4.1. Diversity Index. a). Shannon Diversity Index Shannon diversity index (H’) is used to characterize species diversity in a. community (Spellerberg & Fedor, 2003). The formula of Shannon Diversity Index, H is:. 𝐻 ′ = − ∑𝑠𝑖=1(𝑝𝑖 ) ln(𝑝𝑖 ). (3.1). Where: H’ = Shannon diversity index Pi = fraction of the entire population made up of species i S = the number of species ∑ = sum of species 1 to species S b). Shannon Evenness Index Shannon Evenness Index is used to measure the equitability among species in. the community. The formula of Shannon Evenness Index is:. 𝐸=. 𝐻′ 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. 21. (3.2). FYP FSB. Turner (1995) and The International Plant Name Index (IPNI) official website also.

(35) FYP FSB. Where, E. = Evenness Index. H’ = Shannon Diversity Index value Hmax = Species diversity under maximum equitability conditions. 3.4.2. Richness Index Margalef’s index is used as a simple measure of species richness (Magurran,. 1988). The formula of Margalef’s index is:. 𝐷𝑀𝑔 =. 𝑆−1 ln 𝑁. (3.3). Where: DMg = Margalef’s Index. 3.4.3. S. = total number of species. N. = total number of individuals in the sample. Abundance Parameter a) Frequency. 𝑓 =. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡. (3.4). b) Density. 𝑑 =. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑. 22. (3.5).

(36) the data from abundance parameter. The formula of IVi is:. 𝐼𝑉𝑖 =. 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑑. (3.6). 2. Where, IVi = Importance Value Index Rf = Relative frequency Rd = Relative density. a) Relative frequency. 𝑅𝑓 =. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠. × 100%. (3.7). b) Relative density. 𝑅𝑑 =. 3.4.4. 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠. × 100%. (3.8). Comparison Table and Key Identification Using the data collected, a comparison table to compare the generative and. vegetative characteristics of species are prepared. Then, based on the comparison table, a Dichotomous key identification (Geesink, Leeuwenberg, Ridsdale, & Veldkamp, 1981) for the species were constructed. A dichotomous key is a tool for identifying the organisms where there will be two options based on different characteristics in each step (Andrew & Clegg, 2017). The key was constructed to separate the Asteraceae by their species.. 23. FYP FSB. Then, the Importance value Index (Katinas et al., 2007), are calculated by using.

(37) RESULT AND DISCUSSION. 4.1. Floristic Composition Throughout the study of species diversity on the Asteraceae growing around. University Malaysia of Kelantan Jeli Campus, a total of 559 individual with 16 genera and 17 species as shown in Table 4.1 were identified and recorded. Seven species were found from random quadrat sampling and 10 additional species were found from general observation method. From the all species found, two species have the same genus which is Sphagneticola calendulacea and Sphagneticola trilobata. Most of the species found are herbaceous plant and grown in the moister area along the road and in abandoned land. The total species of Asteraceae in this study area is higher than the previous study by Kamal-Uddin,M., A.S. Juraimi, M. Begum, M.R. Ismail, A.A. Rahim, and R. Othman (2009) at Turf Grass Area of Peninsular Malaysia were there only seven species of Asteraceae are identified in that area. However, Asteraceae in UMK Jeli Campus is lower compared to the study by Rahman et al. (2008) at Rajshahi Division, India where 36 species of Asteraceae was identified in the study. The factor that contributes the highest number of species at Rajshahi Division, India compared with. 24. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 4.

(38) study has been conducted longer than the study in UMK Jeli Campus. Table 4.1: Asteraceae found in Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus, Kelantan.. No.. Species. Genus. 1.. Acmella paniculata. Acmella. 2.. Adenostemma viscosum. Adenostemma. 3.. Ageratum conyzoides. Ageratum. 4.. Centhratheratum punctatum. Centratheratum. 5.. Chromolaena odorata. Chromolaena. 6.. Conyza sumatrensis. Conyza. 7.. Crassocephalum crepidioides. Crassocephalum. 8.. Eclipta prostrata. Eclipta. 9.. Eleutheranthera ruderalis. Eleutheranthera. 10.. Emilia sonchifolia. Emilia. 11.. Mikania micrantha. Mikania. 12.. Pectis prostrata. Pectis. 13.. Sphagneticola calendulacea. Sphagneticola. 14.. Sphagneticola trilobata. Sphagneticola. 15.. Synedrella nodiflora. Synedrella. 16.. Tridax procumbens. Tridax. 17.. Vernonia cinerea. Vernonia. Total 17 species. Table 4.2 shown the data recorded from the random quadrat sampling method. The table below shows the species of Asteraceae arranged from the highest number of individuals to the lowest number of individuals. From the tabulated result, it can be seen that Ageratum conyzoides were recorded with the highest number of individuals collected with the total number of 442 individuals different from a study by Sunarto,. 25. FYP FSB. UMK Jeli Campus possibly because of the area in Rajshahi Division is bigger and the.

(39) Eupatorium riparium with the total individuals is 85. The second highest number of individuals of Asteraceae in UMK Jeli Campus were Adenostemma viscosum with 37 individuals followed by and Vernonia cinerea with 24 individuals. Centratherum punctatum was recorded as the lowest collected number of individuals with the total number of five. Table 4.2: Asteraceae recorded through random quadrat sampling around UMK Jeli Campus.. No.. Species. Number of individuals. 1.. Ageratum conyzoides. 442. 2.. Adenostemma viscosum. 37. 3.. Vernonia cinerea. 24. 4.. Eclipta prostrata. 20. 5.. Tridax procumbens. 19. 6.. Emilia sonchifolia. 12. 7.. Centratherum punctatum. 5. Total. 7 species. 559. The highest number of individuals collected which is Ageratum conyzoides (Figure 4.1) is the common species of Asteraceae that can be found in Peninsular Malaysia. According to Ming Kai Tan, Khairul Nizam Kamaruddin, and Tan (2016) Ageratum conyzoides was cultivated in Europe in the late 1600s and had spread throughout the Malay Archipelago as a weed by the early 20th century. This species lives in moister areas in agriculture land, waste places, compounds, roadsides, and plantations of all kinds up to 300 m alt. As stated by Ekeleme, Forcella, Archer, Akobundu, and Chikoye (2005), Ageratum conyzoides has the potential to produce many seeds (94,772 seeds per plant) and to shed seeds over extended times (5 to 8 months). This species also has the potential of the very high intrinsic rate increase as 26. FYP FSB. Titik Warsiti, Sugiyarto, Widhi Himawan (2017) where the highest individuals are.

(40) soil.. Figure 4.1: Ageratum conyzoides in the study area. 4.2. Species Diversity and Evenness The data collected were analyzed by using the Shannon Diversity Index and. Shannon Evenness Index. Shannon Diversity Index was used to characterize species diversity in a community (Spellerberg & Fedor, 2003), while Shannon Evenness Index was used to measure the equitability among species in the community. In determining the degree of evenness in abundance of species around UMK Jeli Campus, the Shannon Evenness Index were used with the evenness scale from 0 to 1. The value of 0 represents the minimum evenness whereas the value of 1 is the maximum evenness. A value of evenness that approaching zero also means that there is a large difference in abundance of species, while the value of evenness of one indicates all species are equally abundant (Ifo et al., 2016).. 27. FYP FSB. they reproduce early and they can survive adverse condition as dormant seeds in the.

(41) of Asteraceae collected through random quadrat sampling. Table 4.3: Species diversity and Evenness Index. Shannon-Index (H’). Evenness Index (E). Asteraceae. 0.87. 0.45. Ageratum conyzoides. 0.19. 0.10. Adenostemma viscosum. 0.18. 0.10. Vernonia cinerea. 0.14. 0.07. Eclipta prostrata. 0.12. 0.06. Tridax procumbens. 0.12. 0.06. Emilia sonchifolia. 0.08. 0.04. Centratherum punctatum. 0.04. 0.02. Species. Based on Table 4.3, it is shown that the value of the Shannon Diversity Index (H’) for Asteraceae around UMK Jeli Campus is 0.87 and the value of Hmax is 1.95. When comparing the diversity index of Asteraceae with the previous study, it shows that the Asteraceae around UMK Jeli Campus have low diversity. Mount Lawu, Indonesia has a medium diversity of Asteraceae with the Shannon Diversity Index H’is 1.14 (Sunarto et al., 2017). However, the elevation between this two is quite different where the elevation in UMK Jeli Campus between 39.94−58.0 m while the previous study in Mount Lawu is between 1800−3200 m. Factor that influences the lower diversity of Asteraceae in UMK Jeli Campus is the area is still in developing. During the sampling, there some infrastructure are still in construction. The clearance of area in study site lead to species loss and cause the lower species can be identified during sampling. Among the seven species, the highest species diversity was Ageratum conyzoides while the second highest was Adenostemma viscosum with the value of 28. FYP FSB. Table 4.3 showed the value of diversity and evenness index from seven species.

(42) more diverse than other species of the Asteraceae present in the study area. The lowest species diversity was Centratherum punctatum with Shannon index 0.04. From the table also can be seen that the value of evenness for Asteraceae in the study area is 0.45. Based on the value, it indicates that there are relatively low evenness species of Asteraceae. The highest species evenness were both Ageratum conyzoides and Adenostemma viscosum with the same value which is 0.10. The other five species were all < 0.10 evenness index with the lowest value is 0.02 for Centratherum punctatum.. 4.3. Richness Index. To measure the species richness of Asteraceae around UMK Jeli Campus, the Margalef’s Index were used. Table 4.4 showed that the richness for Asteraceae is 0.95. The species with the highest record of richness is Centratherum punctatum with 3.73 and the lowest record of species richness is Ageratum conyzoides with 0.99. Table 4.4: Species Richness. Species. Richness Index (DMg). Asteraceae. 0.95. Ageratum conyzoides. 0.99. Adenostemma viscosum. 1.66. Vernonia cinerea. 1.89. Eclipta prostrata. 2.00. Tridax procumbens. 2.04. Emilia sonchifolia. 2.41. Centratherum punctatum. 3.73. 29. FYP FSB. Shannon index is 0.19 and 0.18 respectively. It indicates that these two species were.

(43) Abundance Parameter. Abundance parameter such as frequency, density, relative frequency, and relative density was calculated to determine the Important Value Index of the species. Based on the recorded data, frequency and density of Asteraceae around Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus are shown in Table 4.5. Table 4.5: Frequency and Density of Asteraceae. Species. Frequency. Density. Ageratum conyzoides. 0.75. 22.1. Adenostemma viscosum. 0.15. 1.85. Vernonia cinerea. 0.30. 1.20. Eclipta prostrata. 0.15. 1.00. Tridax procumbens. 0.20. 0.95. Emilia sonchifolia. 0.20. 0.60. Centratherum punctatum. 0.05. 0.25. In the term of frequencies among the species found, the most common and frequent species was Ageratum conyzoides that occupied in 15 out of 20 quadrats with the value of frequency is 0.75. The species that have a second highest frequency with 0.30 were Vernonia cinerea which occupied six quadrats. Then, there are two species with the same frequency which Tridax procumbens and Emilia sonchifolia with value 0.20 where these two species were occupied in four out of 20 quadrats. There also have another two species that have the same value of frequency which is Adenostemma viscosum and Eclipta prostrata with value 0.15. Centratherum punctatum have the lowest frequency with 0.05 and only occupied in one out of 20 quadrats distributed.. 30. FYP FSB. 4.4.

(44) Adenostemma viscosum, Vernonia cinerea, and Eclipta prostrata were the species with density in the range of 1.0 where the density of these species is 1.85, 1.20, and 1.00 respectively. Meanwhile, Tridax procumbens, Emilia sonchifolia, Centratherum punctatum were the species with densities < 1.0 with the lowest density is 0.25. Then, from the frequency and density result, Important Value Index (IVi) were calculated. IVi is used to shows the ecological importance of a species in a given ecosystem (Kacholi ,2014). IVi also used to concentrate on species conservation which species with low IVi need high conservation priority compared to species with high IVi. Table 4.6 depicts the relative frequency, relative density and import value index of species collected through random quadrat sampling. Table 4.6: Important Value Index of Asteraceae. Species. Relative. Relative Density. Frequency. Important Value Index. Ageratum conyzoides. 41.67. 79.07. 60.37. Adenostemma viscosum. 8.33. 6.62. 7.48. Vernonia cinerea. 16.67. 4.29. 10.48. Eclipta prostrata. 8.33. 3.58. 5.95. Tridax procumbens. 11.11. 3.40. 7.26. Emilia sonchifolia. 11.11. 2.15. 6.63. Centratherum punctatum. 2.78. 0.89. 1.83. 100. The high IVi exhibited by Ageratum conyzoides with 60.37% is due to it has higher relative frequency and density compared to other species. The second highest IVi were Vernonia cinerea with 10.48. However, other species have < 10% of IVi with. 31. FYP FSB. Ageratum conyzoides was the most abundance species with a density of 22.1..

(45) of Asteraceae are unusual in the study area.. 4.5. Comparison Table of Asteraceae Plant morphology is remained relevant and use practically in all kind of plant. biology studies such as molecular genetics, physiology, ecology, evolutionary biology, and systematics. According to Sattler and Rutishauser (1997), this field of study implied the morphological concepts, conceptual frameworks of morphology, and morphological theories. Through the study of plant morphology, it can give someone a better understanding of the basic plant parts such as root, stem, and leaf. Based on the data recorded of Asteraceae growing in Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, the comparison table of Asteraceae are tabulated based on the species vegetative, floral, and fruit characteristics. Table 4.7 shows the comparison of habitat, habitus, and stem characteristic while Table 4.8 depicts the comparison of leaves characteristic. The leaf parts that were compared are their arrangement, shape, size, base, margin, and apex. Besides that, the differences of flower or inflorescence characteristic of Asteraceae can be seen in Table 4.9. As mention by Elpel (2000), sunflower family has a unique flower whereby a single large flower can be actually a composite of much smaller flower. Then, another characteristic of Asteraceae that being compared is fruit characteristics in Table 4.10.. 32. FYP FSB. the least IVi is 1.83. More species with lower IVi also indicates that most of the species.

(46) Stem comparison Species. Habitat. 33. Ageratum conyzoides Adenostemma viscosum Acmella paniculata. The moister area along the roadsides The moister area along the roadsides Along watercourses and moister area. Centratherum punctatum. Along the roadside Dies under a closed tree canopy and abandoned land Particularly in disturbed or neglected areas Moister area and roadsides Roadsides and abandoned land Dry areas and along roadsides Along roadsides Neglected area along the roadsides Open sites and along roadsides Moister area and along roadsides Moister area and along roadsides Moister area Open sites and along roadsides Particularly in disturbed or neglected areas. Chromolaena odorata Conyza sumatrensis Crassocephalum crepidioides Eclipta prostrata Eleutheranthera ruderalis Emilia sonchifolia Mikania micrantha Pectis prostrata Sphagneticola calendulacea Sphagneticola trilobata Synedrella nodiflora Tridax procumbens Vernonia cinerea. Habitus. Stem form. Colour. Herbs Herbs Herbs Herbs to small subshrubs. Straight Straight Crooked. Green Green Green to reddish. Straight. Green. Shrubs Shrubs Herbs Herbs Herbs Herbs Shrubs Herbs Herbs Herbs Shrubs Herbs Herbs. Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Crooked Crooked Crooked Crooked Crooked Crooked Straight. Green Green Green Green to purplish Green Green Green Purplish Green to reddish Green to reddish Green Purplish Green. FYP FSB. Table 4.7: Comparison of habitat, Habitus, and Stem Characteristics of Asteraceae.

(47) Species. Arrangement. Stalk. Shape. Leaves characteristic Length x width (cm). 34. Ageratum conyzoides. Opposite. Petiole. Ovate to rhomboid-ovate. (2-10) x (0.5-5). Adenostemma viscosum. Opposite. Petiole. Broad elliptical to oblong. (4-20) x (3-12). Base Rounded to cunate Roundedcuneate. Margin. Acmella paniculata Centratherum punctatum. Opposite Opposite. Petiole Petiole. Ovate to ovate-lanceolate Lanceolate to ovate. (3-4) x (2-2.5) (1.5-6) x (0.5-4). Cuneate Cuneate. Serrate Serrate. Chromolaena odorata Conyza sumatrensis Crassocephalum crepidioides. Opposite Opposite. Petiole Sessile. Rhomboid-ovate to ovate Lanceolate. (5-14) x (2.5-8) (4-10) x (0.5-0.12). Tapered Cuneate. Coarsely serrate Irregularly serrate. Acute Acute Obtuse to acute Acute. Eclipta prostrata Eleutheranthera ruderalis. Alternate Opposite Opposite. Petiole Sessile Petiole. Oblong to obovate-elliptic Lanceolate to ovate Oblong to ovate. (8-18) x (2-5.5) (2-10) x (1-2) (1.5-7) x (0.5-5.5). Irregularly serrate Slightly serrate Subserrate. Acuminate Acute Acute. Emilia sonchifolia. Alternate. Sessile. Ovate to triangular-ovate. (4-16) x (1-11). Tapered Cunate Rounded Stemclasping. Obtuse. Mikania micrantha Pectis prostrata Sphagneticola calendulacea Sphagneticola trilobata. Opposite Opposite Opposite Opposite. Petiole Sessile Sessile. Ovate to ovate-triangular Linear to lanceolate Trilobe elliptic. Cordate Cunate Rounded. Synedrella nodiflora Tridax procumbens Vernonia cinerea. Opposite Opposite Alternate. Sessile Petiole Petiole Petiole. Trilobe ovate Ovate to ovate oblong Oblong-ovate Obovate to ovate-oblong. (3-12.5) x (1.5-6) (1-3) x (0.015-0.07) (2-4) x (1-2) (0.4-0.18) x (0.150.8) (2.5-15) x (0.5-9) (2.5-6) x (2-4.5) (2-8) x (2-3). Serrate Coarsely to crenate-dentate Subserrate Trilobed-serrate. Rounded Cunate Cuneate Cuneate. Trilobed-serrate Serrate Coarsely serrate Serrate. Acute Acute Acute Acute. Serrate Dentate to serrate. Apex Acute to obtuse Acute to obtuse. Acuminate Obtuse Acute. FYP FSB. Table 4.8: Comparison of Leaves Characteristic of Asteraceae.

(48) Flower/ Inflorescence characteristics. Species. Type. Shape of head. 35. Ageratum conyzoides Adenostemma viscosum Acmella paniculata Centratherum punctatum Chromolaena odorata Conyza sumatrensis Crassocephalum crepidioides. Corymb Corymb Solitary Solitary Corymb Panicle Corymbs. Involucre campanulate Involucre campanulate Involucre ovoid or campanulate Involucre hemispherical Involucre cylindrical Broad-campanulate Cylindrical. Eclipta prostrata Eleutheranthera ruderalis. Corymb Solitary. Campanulate Involucre campanulate. Emilia sonchifolia. Initially cylindrical, later ventricose. Mikania micrantha Pectis prostrata Sphagneticola calendulacea Sphagneticola trilobata. Corymb Simple umbel Solitary Solitary Solitary. Synedrella nodiflora. Solitary. Tridax procumbens. Solitary Compound umbel. Vernonia cinerea. Involucre oblong Involucre campanulate to cylindric Involucre campanulate to cylindric Campanulate-hemispherical Involucre ovoid to ovoid-oblong to campanulate Involucre campanulate Cylindrical. Ray flower colour. Disk flower. White to blue-mauve Purple to violet Yellow Purple Light purple to bluish white Pale yellow or cream Yellow with reddish brown top White ray florets, dull white Terminal and axillary disk florets Terminal and axillary Yellow Reddish purple to pink with Terminal purple at the tip. Absent Absent Present Absent Absent Absent Absent. Present Present Present Present Present Present Present. Present Absent. Present Present. Absent. Present. Terminal or axillary Terminal Terminal Terminal. White Yellow Yellow Yellow. Absent Present Present Present. Present Present Present Present. Terminal and axillary Yellow Pale yellow or white ray florets, Terminal and axillary bright yellow disk florets Usually purple, rarely pink or Terminal white. Present. Present. Present. Present. Absent. Present. Position. Corolla colour. Terminal or axillary Terminal or axillary Terminal and axillary Terminal Terminal or axillary Terminal or axillary Terminal. FYP FSB. Table 4.9: Comparison of Flower/Inflorescence Characteristics of Asteraceae.

(49) Fruit comparison Colour Species Ageratum conyzoides Adenostemma viscosum Acmella paniculata. 36. Centratherum punctatum Chromolaena odorata Conyza sumatrensis Crassocephalum crepidioides Eclipta prostrata Eleutheranthera ruderalis. Type Achene Achene Achene Achene to cypselae Achene Achene Achene Cypselae Achene. Emilia sonchifolia Mikania micrantha Pectis prostrata Sphagneticola calendulacea Sphagneticola trilobata Synedrella nodiflora Tridax procumbens Vernonia cinerea. Achene Achene Achene Achene Achene Achene Achene Achene. Long (mm) 1.5-2 2.5-4 3-4. Shape Oblong Obovate to oblong Obovoid. 1-2.5 4.5-5 2-3 2 2-3 3-3.5. Cylindrical to clavate Oblong Ovoid Cylindric-linear Slightly compressed wedge-shape Obovoid to wedge-shape. 2.5-3 2-4 3-3.7 4-5 4-5 3-4 2 1.5. Oblong Narrowly oblong Narrowly clavate Elongated Elongated Narrowly wedge-shape Oblong Oblong. Young Green Green Brown. Mature Black Black Black. Pappus Present Present Present. Pale brown Brown Pale brown Reddish brown Green Brown Yellowish brown Brown Green Green Green Dark brown Dark brown Pale brown. Brown Black Brown Dark brown Black Black. Present Present Present Present Absent Absent. Brown Blackish brown Black Brown Brown Black Black Brown. Present Present Present Present Present Absent Present Present. FYP FSB. Table 4.10: Comparison of Fruit Characteristics of Asteraceae.

(50) Key Identification of Asteraceae This key identification is applied for 17 species of Asteraceae recorded around. Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus. Key to species 1.a. Leaves alternate……………………………………………………………….2. 1.b. Leaves opposite……………………………………………………………….4. 2.a. Sessile, stem-clasping base……………………………..….. Emilia sonchifolia. 2.b. Petiole, cunate base……………………………………………………..…….3. 3.a. Apex acuminate, flower type corymb…….……. Crassocephalum crepidioides. 3.b. Apex acute, flower type compound umbel………………….. Vernonia cinerea. 4.a. Stem straight…………………………………………………………….…….5. 4.b. Stem crooked………………………………………………………..……….10. 5.a. Stem green, herbs or shrubs…………………………………………………..6. 5.b. Stem green to purplish, herbs……………………………..…. Eclipta prostrata. 6.a. Sessile, apex acute………………………………..……… Conyza sumatrensis. 6.b. Petiole, apex acute to obtuse……………………………………………….….7. 7.a. Base tapered, coarsely serrate margin…………………. Chromolaena odorata. 7.b. Base rounded or cuneate, dentate or serrate margin…………………….……..8. 8.a. Flower type corymb, pappus present in fruit…………………………………..9. 8.b. Flower type solitary, pappus absent in fruit…….….. Eleutheranthera ruderalis 37. FYP FSB. 4.6.

(51) Corolla white to blue-mauve, serrate leaf margin………. Ageratum conyzoides. 9.b. Corolla. purple. to. violet,. dentate. to. serrate. leaf. margin.......................................................................…Adenostemma viscosum 10.a. Apex acuminate, flower type simple umbel………………. Mikania micrantha. 10.b. Apex obtuse or acute, flower type solitary………………………………...…11. 11.a. Flower at terminal, absent ray flower…………….…. Centratherum punctatum. 11.b. Flower at terminal and axillary, present ray flower…………………….…….12. 12.a. Absent pappus in fruit, shrubs………………………..….. Synedrella nodiflora. 12.b. Present pappus in fruit, herbs………………………………………..……….13. 13.a. Pale yellow or white ray florets, fruit < 3mm long……….. Tridax procumbens. 13.b. yellow ray florets, fruit > 3mm long……………………………………...….14. 14.a. Petiole, fruit brown when young…………………….……. Acmella paniculata. 14.b. Sessile, fruit green when young…………………………………….………..15. 15.a. Cunate leaf base, fruit black when mature…………….……… Pectis prostrata. 15.b. Rounded leaf base, fruit brown when mature……………………………….16. 16.a. Trilobe. elliptic. leaf. shape,. involucre. campanulate. to. cylindric. head………………………………………...…… Sphagneticola calendulacea 16.b. Trilobe. ovate. leaf. shape,. campanulate-hemispherical. head………………………………………………..…. Sphagneticola trilobata. 38. FYP FSB. 9.a.

(52) Species Description Species description with a picture of seven species of Asteraceae identify by. random quadrat sampling are shown in Figure 4.2 until Figure 4.8. Leaf: opposite, ovate to rhomboidovate shape, with a serrate margin. Flower: Flower at terminal or axillary, involucre campanulate white to blue-mauve, and absent ray flower Fruit: Achene type, green when young and black when mature, have pappus. Habitat: In the moister area along the roadsides Native: Central America and the Caribbean. Figure 4.2: Ageratum conyzoides. Leaf: Opposite, broad elliptical to oblong shape with margin dentate to serrate. Flower: Involucre campanulate head, flower at terminal or axillary, purple to violet corolla colour with absent ray flower. Fruit: Achene type, green when young and black when mature, have pappus. Habitat: In the moister area along the roadsides.. Figure 4.3: Adenostemma viscosum. 39. FYP FSB. 4.7.

(53) Figure 4.4: Vernonia cinerea. Leaf: Alternate, ovate to triangularovateleaves shape with serrate margin and stem-clasping base. Flower: Initially cylindrical, later ventricose head, reddish purple to pink with purple at tip. Fruit: Achene type, oblong shape, yellowish brown when young, brown when mature. Habitat: Along roadsides Native: Central and South America. Figure 4.5: Emilia sonchifolia. 40. FYP FSB. Leaf: alternate, shape obovate to ovateoblong with a serrate margin. Flower: Head cylindrical, usually purple, flower at terminal, rarely pink or white with absent ray flower. Fruit: Achene type, oblong shape, pale brown when young, brown when mature. Habitat: In in particularly disturbed or neglected areas Native: Africa.

(54) Figure 4.6: Eclipta prostrata. Leaf: Opposite, oblong-ovate leaves shape with a coarsely serrated margin. Flower: Flower at terminal and axillary pale yellow or white ray florets, bright yellow disk florets. Fruit: Achene type, oblong shape, dark brown when young, black when mature. Habitat: In open sites and along roadsides Native: Central America. Figure 4.7: Tridax procumbens. Leaf: Opposite, lanceolate to ovate leaves shape, with a serrate margin. Flower: involucre hemispherical head, flower at terminal, purple corolla, absent ray flower. Fruit: Achene to cypselae type, cylindrical to clavate, pale brown when young, brown when mature, present pappus. Habitat: Along the roadside. Native: Central and South America. Figure 4.8: Centratherum punctatum. 41. FYP FSB. Leaf: Opposite, lanceolate to ovate leaves shape with a slightly serrate margin. Flower: Flower at terminal and axillary, white ray florets, dull white disk florets, present ray flower. Fruit: Achene type, slightly compressed wedge-shape, green when young, black when mature, absent pappus. Habitat: In roadsides and abandoned land Native: Asia.

(55) CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION. 5.1. Conclusion From the data recorded it can be concluded that the diversity of this family is. low. The Shannon Diversity and Shannon Evenness Index calculated are 0.87 and 0.45 respectively. The construction of infrastructure in the study area during the sampling might be one of the factors that contribute to the lowest value of diversity of Asteraceae. The highest species diversity of Asteraceae in the study area was Ageratum conyzoides. This species is the common species found in the study area as it can produce many seeds and shed the seeds over extended times. Then, the richness of Asteraceae calculated by using Margalef’s Index is 0.948. The highest species richness is Centratherum punctatum. Even though this species has the lowest number of individual, it has the highest richness index as species richness is a measure of its own and takes no account of the number of individual of each species. Herbarium and key identification of Asteraceae is the product of this study which will help students to recognize and identify the species.. 42. FYP FSB. CHAPTER 5.

(56) Recommendations There are several suggestions or recommendations that can be highlighted in. this study. The dominance species in the study area was Ageratum conyzoides which are weeds and can bring negative impacts to another plant such as competition for soil nutrient. Further study about this species should be conducted in order to reduce or control the species populations. Further study about secondary metabolites (SM) of Asteraceae also can be conducted to know the interaction of cell (organism) with its surrounding to ensure the continued existence of the Asteraceae in the ecosystems. Apart from that, more study about species diversity of Asteraceae should be conducted in Malaysia in order to keep updated with the population. Even though most of Asteraceae are weeds, but there are several species is valuable to economics. Through the study of species diversity, there might have the potential to identify new species that have economic or medicinal value.. 43. FYP FSB. 5.2.

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(61) Final Year Project Planning. FYP I Completing chapter 1 25th March - 15th April 2018 Completing chapter 2 Completing chapter 3 10th April 2018 24th - 25th April 2018 5th July 2018. Submission Research proposal Presentation FYP I Submission Report FYP I. FYP II Labwork 17th July 2018. Preparing 1.5L ethanol with 70% concentration. 8th August 2018. Preserve sample collection with 70% ethanol. 16th August 2018. Completing the herbarium drying process. 30th November 2018. Completing mounting herbarium specimen Fieldwork. 18th July - 8th August 2018. Random quadrat sampling around UMK Jeli Campus and Pinggiran UMK General Observation at the study area Sample collection Preparation for herbarium Report Writing. 25th November 2018. Completing Chapter 4. 30th November 2018. Completing Chapter 5. 10th December 2018. Submission Final Chapter. 18th - 19th December 2018 10th -17th January 2019. Presentation FYP II Submission Hardbound. 48. FYP FSB. APPENDIX A.

(62) Total Species Of Asteraceae Recorded With Random Quadrat Sampling Species. Ageratum conyzoides. Quadrats 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 4. 40. 1. 7. 12. 102. 42. 1. 6. Adenostemma viscosum. 11. 12. 13. 14. 75. 42. 20. 15. 16. 5. Eclipta prostrata. 14. 9. 3 5. 5. 17. 55. 12. Vernonia cinerea. 18. 19. 30 5. 20 5. 20. 1. 1. 5. 49. Emilia sonchifolia. 2. Tridax procumbens 49. 6. 11. 24 20. 5. 23. 442 37. 1. Centratherum punctatum. Total. 10. Total Individual. 17. 102. 47. 10. 2. 5. 11. 8. 19. 4. 3. 3. 2 5. 75. 42. 20. 2. 12 19. 55. 5. 30. 23. 9. 559. FYP FSB. APPENDIX B.

(63) Description of Species of Asteraceae From General Observation. Scientific name: Acmella paniculata Leaf: Opposite, ovate to ovatelanceolate shape, with serrate margin. Flower: Solitary, involucre ovoid or campanulate head shape, flower at terminal and axillary, yellow colour. Fruit: Achene type, obovoid shape, brown when young, black when mature, pappus present. Habitat: Along water courses and moister area. Native: Africa, Asia, and South America.. Scientific name: Synedrella nodiflora Leaf: Opposite, ovate to ovate-oblong leaf shape with a serrate margin. Flower: Solitary, involucre campanulate head shape, flower at terminal, yellow colour, present ray flower. Fruit: Achene type, narrowly wedgeshape shape, dark brown when young, black when mature, absent pappus. Habitat: In the moister area. Native: Central America. Scientific name: Pectis prostrata Leaf: Opposite, linear to lanceolate leaf shape with sub-serrate margin. Flower: Solitary, flower at terminal involucre campanulate to cylindric head shape, yellow. Fruit: Achene type, narrowly clavate shape, green when young, black when mature. Habitat: In open sites and along roadsites. Native: Caribbean Territories. 50. FYP FSB. APPENDIX C.