THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

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(1)al. ay. a. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES AND SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH STRENGTH LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE INCORPORATING OILPALM-BOILER CLINKER. ty. of. M. LEE JIN CHAI. U. ni. ve r. si. THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR. 2018.

(2) UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION. Name of Candidate: Lee Jin Chai Matric No: KHA 130132 Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Project (“this Work”):. ay. Aggregate Concrete Incorporating Oil-Palm-Boiler Clinker. a. Engineering Properties and Shear Behaviour of High Strength Lightweight. M. al. Field of Study: Structural Engineering and Materials (Civil Engineering). I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Date:. Subscribed and solemnly declared before,. Date:. Name: Designation: ii.

(3) ENGINEERING PROPERTIES AND SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH STRENGTH LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE INCORPORATING OIL-PALM-BOILER CLINKER ABSTRACT Oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) is waste by-products from palm oil mill. The research on incorporating OPBC as aggregate in normal weight concrete (NWC) to produce structural. a. lightweight aggregate concrete has been studied in the past 20 years. The compressive. ay. strength of OPBC lightweight concrete in between 15 and 47 MPa with a density of 12 -. al. 40% less than NWC has been achieved by previous researchers. This study presents the use of OPBC as coarse aggregate substitution of conventional coarse aggregate to produce. M. a sustainable high strength lightweight aggregate concrete. From trial mixes, it was found. of. that OBPC high strength lightweight concrete, with or without limestone powder, with 28-day compressive strength in the range of 50 to 60 MPa with an oven dry density of. ty. 1875-1997 kg/m3 can be produced. The OPBC concrete has very low sensitivity with. si. regards to poor curing. However, it is recommended that this type of concrete be cured. ve r. for a minimum period of 7 days. The 28-day splitting tensile strength of OPBC concrete was determined to be between 2.2 and 5.0 MPa, which surpassed the requirement for. ni. structural concrete. The 28-day flexural strength was measured in the range of 3.2 to 7.0. U. MPa. The ratio of flexural to compressive strength varied from 8.6 to 21.6% and fall in the range of high strength lightweight concrete. The modulus of elasticity was found to be between 16.8 and 38.0 GPa which is in the range of NWC of 14 to 41 GPa. With regards to durability, the initial water absorption of OPBC concrete is lower than 3% which is classified as good concrete by CEB-FIP. The lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) concrete demonstrates a greater drying shrinkage than both the normal weight and OPBC concretes between 14 days and 90 days. From the age of 90 days to 220 days, there is no significantly increase. However, 220 days onwards, the LECA iii.

(4) concrete exhibited the greatest increase in drying shrinkage rate. As compared to OPBC concrete without fly ash (FA), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) at the age of 28 days, the use of FA, GGBFS showed lower mechanical properties, water absorption and sorptivity. Increasing porosity and chloride permeability are 4.3 to 13% and 4 to 8%, respectively. However, resistance against chemical attack (acid and sulphate) and drying shrinkage are improved. For shear behaviour, OPBC reinforced concrete beam. a. of grade 55 strength without shear reinforcement showed higher ultimate load carrying. ay. capacity compared to other lightweight concrete beams, however, about 8% lower than that of NWC reinforced concrete beam. The substitution of cement with FA in OPBC. al. reinforced concrete beam has no significant effect on shear behaviour, although, by. M. incorporating GGBFS, the shear behaviour was found like oil palm shell reinforced concrete beam. By high substitution of cement with FA and GGBFS in OPBC concrete. of. helps to reduce CO2 emissions by around 50%. Therefore, the use of OPBC should be. ty. promoted to produce a cleaner and greener concrete that can benefit the construction and. si. agricultural industries.. ve r. Keywords: Oil-palm-boiler clinker, expanded clay aggregate, ground granulated blast. U. ni. furnace slag, fly ash. iv.

(5) SIFAT KEJURUTERAAN DAN PRETASI RICIH KONKRIT KEKUATAN TINGGI AGREGAT RINGAN MENGGAGUNGKAN MINYAK-SAWITDANDANG BATU HANGUS ABSTRAK Minyak-sawit-dandang batu hangus (OPBC) merupakan sisa pepejal pertanian yang dihasilkan daripada kilang-kilang kelapa sawit. Untuk menghasilkan konkrit ringan,. a. OPBC sejenis agregat ringan yang digunakan sebagai pengganti agregat konvensional.. ay. Penyelidikan mengenai OPBC sebagai agregat untuk menghasilkan agregat ringan telah dijalankan dalam 20 tahun kebelakangaan ini. Kekuatan mampatan. konkrit ringan. al. mengandungi OPBC adalah dalam julat 15 hingga 47 MPa dengan ketumpatan antara 12. M. - 40% kurang daripada berat konkrit biasa telah diperolehi penyelidik dahulu. Penyelidikan ini ingin membuktikan kegunaan OPBC sebagai pengganti agregat kasar. of. untuk menghasilkan konkrit agregat ringan yang mampan kekuatan tinggi.Melalui. ty. beberapa campuran percubaan dalam penyelidikan ini, kekuatan konkrit ringan. si. mengandungi OPBC berserta kewujudan dan ketidakwujudan, serbuk batu kapur, dapat menghasilkan kekuatan mampatan dalam lingkungan 50 - 60 MPa dengan ketumpatan. ve r. kering antara 1877 - 1997 kg/m3. Konkrit OPBC menunjukkan kepekaan yang rendah terhadap pengaweta yang lemah. Namun, jenis konkrit ini digalakkan untuk diawet dalam. ni. tempoh minimum 7 hari. Kekuatan pemisahan tegangan 28 hari konkrit OPBC telah. U. ditentukan dalam julat 2.2 hingga 5.0 MPa, iaitu melebihi keperluan minimum untuk kegunaan struktur konkrit. Kekuatan lenturan 28 hari diukur dalam julat 3.2 hingga 7.0 MPa. Nisbah kekuatan kelenturan/mampatan adalah antara 8.6 hingga 21.6%, dalam lingkungan konkrit ringan berkekuatan tinggi. Modulus keanjalan mencapai lingkungan 16.8 hingga 38.0 GPa, iaitu dalam julat untuk konkrit biasa (NWC) antara 14 hingga 41 GPa. Dari segi ketahanan, penyerapan air awal untuk konkrit OPBC adalah 3% lebih rendah, yang mana diklasifikasikan sebagai konkrit yang baik oleh CEB-FIP. Konkrit. v.

(6) agregat tanah liat terkembang ringan (LECA) menunjukkan pengecutan kering yang lebih tinggi daripada kedua-dua konkrit biasa dan OPBC konkrit antara 14 hari dan 90 hari. Dari 90 hari hingga 220, ia tidak menunjukkan peningkatan. Namun, dari hari ke 220, konkrit agregat tanah liat terkembang ringan (LECA) mengandungi peningkatan terbesar dalam kadar pengecutan pengeringan. Berbanding konkrit OPBC tanpa abu terbang (FA) dan tanah pasir sanga relau bagas (GGBFS) pada 28 hari menunjukkan lebih rendah sifat-. a. sifat mekanik, penyerapan air dan erapan. Peningkatan keliangan dan kebolehtelapan. ay. klorida masing-masing adalah 4.3 hingga 13% dan 4 hingga 8%. Walau bagaimanapun, penentangan terhadap serangan kimia (asid dan sulfat) dan penyejatan pengeringan. al. diperbaiki. Dari segi prestasi ricih, rasuk konkrit bertetulang OPBC gred 55 tanpa tetulang. M. ricih menunjukkan beban muktamad yang lebih tinggi berbanding rasuk konkrit ringan lain. Kira-kira 8% lebih rendah daripada rasuk konkrit bertetulang biasa (NWC).. of. Penggantian simen dengan abu terbang (FA) dalam rasuk konkrit bertetulang OPBC tidak. ty. mempunyai apa-apa kesan yang besar ke atas prestasi ricih, walaupun, dengan. si. menggabungkan tanah pasir sanga relau bagas (GGBFS) dalam rasuk konkrit bertetulang OPBC, prestasi ricih didapati sama dengan rasuk konkrit bertetulang mengandungi. ve r. terpurus kelapa sawit. Penggantian simen yang tinggi dengan abu terbang (FA) dan tanah pasir sanga relau bagas (GGBFS) dalam OPBC konkrit dapat mengurangkan pembebasan. ni. CO2 sebanyak 50%. Oleh itu, penggunaan OPBC harus dipromosikan untuk. U. menghasilkan konkrit yang lebih hijau untuk memberi manfaat kepada sektor pembinaan dan pertanian.. Kata kunci: Minyak-sawit-dandang batu hangus, agregat tanah liat terkembang ringan, tanah pasir sanga relau bagas, abu terbang. vi.

(7) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Payam Shafigh and Professor Dr. Hilmi Bin Mahmud, for their unceasing guidance, supervision and support throughout the research period. Their sense of discipline and perseverance in their work have been an inspiration to me.. I also wish to thank laboratory assistant Mr. Sreedharan, for his technical help,. a. guidance and advices during the research. In addition, I would like to thank Postgraduate. ay. Research Grant (PPP) of University of Malaya, No. PG216-2015A for providing financial. al. support to my research.. M. Last but not least, I would like to express my special and sincerest appreciation to. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. my parents, wife and daughters, for having been supportive all the time.. vii.

(8) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Abstract ...........................................................................................................................iii Abstrak ............................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vii Table of Contents .........................................................................................................viii List of Figures .............................................................................................................xviii. a. List of Tables………………………………………………………………………….xxi. al. ay. List of Symbols and Abbreviations…………………………………………………xxiv. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 Research Background .............................................................................................. 1. 1.2. Lightweight Concrete .............................................................................................. 3. of. M. 1.1. Background ................................................................................................ 3. 1.2.2. Definition of Lightweight Concrete ........................................................... 3. 1.2.3. Classification of Lightweight Concrete ...................................................... 4. 1.2.4. Benefit of Lightweight Concrete ................................................................ 6. ve r. si. ty. 1.2.1. 1.2.5. Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 9. ni. 1.3. Limitation of Lightweight Concrete ........................................................... 8. Aims and Objectives of the Research .................................................................... 11. U. 1.4. 1.4.1. General Objective ..................................................................................... 11. 1.4.2. Specific Objectives ................................................................................... 11. 1.5. Scope of the Study ................................................................................................. 12. 1.6. Layout of Thesis .................................................................................................... 12. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 14 2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 14 viii.

(9) 2.2.1. Source ....................................................................................................... 14. 2.2.2. Production ................................................................................................ 15. 2.2.3. Physical Properties ................................................................................... 16. 2.2.4. Chemical Composition ............................................................................. 18. Oil-Palm-Boiler Clinker Lightweight Aggregate Concrete ................................... 18 2.3.1. Mix Design ............................................................................................... 18. 2.3.2. Physical Properties ................................................................................... 20. ay. 2.3. Oil-Palm-Boiler Clinker as a Lightweight Aggregate ........................................... 14. a. 2.2. 2.3.2.1 Slump ………………………………………………………….20. Mechanical Properties .............................................................................. 23. M. 2.3.3. al. 2.3.2.2 Density ...................................................................................... 22. 2.3.3.1 Compressive Strength ............................................................... 23. of. 2.3.3.2 Splitting Tensile Strength .......................................................... 25. ty. 2.3.3.3 Flexural Strength ....................................................................... 26. si. 2.3.3.4 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................ 27 2.3.3.5 Drying Shrinkage ...................................................................... 28. ve r. 2.3.3.6 Water Absorption ...................................................................... 29 2.3.3.7 Chloride Ion Penetrability ......................................................... 30. Structural Behaviour and Performance .................................................... 30. U. ni. 2.3.4. 2.3.4.1 Flexural Behaviour .................................................................... 30 2.3.4.2 Shear Behaviour ........................................................................ 31. 2.4. Summary ................................................................................................................ 32. 2.5. Research Gap Analysis .......................................................................................... 34. CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM……………………………………………………………………………36 3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 36 ix.

(10) Materials ................................................................................................................ 36 Cement...................................................................................................... 36. 3.2.2. Fly Ash ..................................................................................................... 36. 3.2.3. Ground Blast Furnace Slag....................................................................... 37. 3.2.4. Limestone Powder .................................................................................... 37. 3.2.5. Water ........................................................................................................ 37. 3.2.6. Superplasticizer ........................................................................................ 38. 3.2.7. Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................. 38. 3.2.8. Aggregates ................................................................................................ 38. a. 3.2.1. ay. 3.2. al. 3.2.8.1 Testing of Aggregates ............................................................... 38. M. 3.2.8.2 Original and Crushed Oil-Palm-Boiler Clinker ........................ 38 3.2.8.3 Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) ........................................... 40. of. 3.2.8.4 Crushed Granite......................................................................... 41. Mix Design ............................................................................................................ 41 3.3.1. si. 3.3. ty. 3.2.8.5 Sand…………………………………………………………...41. Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone Powder. ve r. Content in OPBC Concrete ...................................................................... 42. 3.3.2. Effect of Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate in OPBC. ni. Concrete in Dry Condition ....................................................................... 43. U. 3.3.3. 3.3.4. Effect of Partial Substitution of OPBC and LECA in Normal Weight Concrete in SSD Condition ...................................................................... 43 Effect of Full Substitution of OPBC and LECA in Normal Weight Concrete in SSD Condition...................................................................................... 44. 3.3.5. Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete .................................................................................... 45. 3.4. Fresh Concrete Tests.............................................................................................. 46. x.

(11) 3.5. 3.4.1. Slump........................................................................................................ 46. 3.4.2. Density...................................................................................................... 46. Hardened Concrete Tests ....................................................................................... 46 3.5.1. Mechanical Properties Tests ..................................................................... 46 3.5.1.1 Compressive Strength ............................................................... 47 3.5.1.2 Splitting Tensile Strength .......................................................... 48. a. 3.5.1.3 Flexural Strength ....................................................................... 48. 3.5.2. ay. 3.5.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................ 49 Durability Properties Tests ....................................................................... 49. al. 3.5.2.1 Water Absorption ...................................................................... 49. M. 3.5.2.2 Sorptivity ................................................................................... 50 3.5.2.3 Porosity...................................................................................... 51. of. 3.5.2.4 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test.............................................. 52. ty. 3.5.2.5 Acid Attack ................................................................................ 53. si. 3.5.2.6 Sulphate Attack.......................................................................... 53 3.5.2.7 Drying Shrinkage....................................................................... 54 Environmental Assessment.................................................................................... 54. 3.7. Shear Behaviour..................................................................................................... 54. ve r. 3.6. Mix Proportions ........................................................................................ 54. 3.7.2. Preparations of Samples ........................................................................... 55. 3.7.3. Instrumentation and Testing ..................................................................... 57. U. ni. 3.7.1. CHAPTER 4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 59 4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 59. 4.2. Fresh Concrete Properties ...................................................................................... 59 4.2.1. Slump........................................................................................................ 59. xi.

(12) 4.2.1.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone Powder Content in OPBC Concrete .......................................... 59 4.2.1.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition .................................. 61 4.2.1.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............... 63. a. 4.2.1.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate. ay. with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ................................. 64 4.2.1.5 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. al. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................... 66. 4.2.2. M. 4.2.1.6 Summary ................................................................................... 66 Density...................................................................................................... 67. of. 4.2.2.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone. ty. Powder Content in OPBC Concrete .......................................... 67. si. 4.2.2.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition .................................. 68. ve r. 4.2.2.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............... 69. U. ni. 4.2.2.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ......................................... 71. 4.2.2.5 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................... 71 4.2.2.6 Summary ................................................................................... 72. 4.3. Hardened Concrete Properties ............................................................................... 73 4.3.1. Compressive Strength under Continuous Moist Curing........................... 73. xii.

(13) 4.3.1.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone Powder Content in OPBC Concrete .......................................... 73 4.3.1.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition .................................. 78 4.3.1.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............... 80. a. 4.3.1.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate. ay. with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ................................. 84 4.3.1.5 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. al. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................... 85. 4.3.2. M. 4.3.1.6 Summary ................................................................................... 88 Compressive Strength under Air Drying and Partial Early Curing. of. Conditions ................................................................................................ 89. ty. 4.3.2.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone. si. Powder Content in OPBC Concrete .......................................... 89. 4.3.2.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse. ve r. Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition .................................. 90. U. ni. 4.3.2.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............... 92. 4.3.2.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ................................. 94 4.3.2.5 Effect of Corporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................... 95 4.3.2.6 Summary ................................................................................... 96. 4.3.3. Splitting Tensile Strength ......................................................................... 97. xiii.

(14) 4.3.3.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone Powder Content in OPBC Concrete .......................................... 97 4.3.3.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition .................................. 99 4.3.3.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............. 102. a. 4.3.3.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate. ay. with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............................... 104 4.3.3.5 Effect of Incorporating of Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. al. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 107. 4.3.4. M. 4.3.3.6 Summary ................................................................................. 110 Flexural Strength .................................................................................... 110. of. 4.3.4.1 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse. ty. Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition ................................ 110. si. 4.3.4.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............. 111. ve r. 4.3.4.3 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............................... 113. ni. 4.3.4.4 Summary ................................................................................. 116. U. 4.3.5. Modulus of Elasticity ............................................................................. 116 4.3.5.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone Powder Content in OPBC Concrete ........................................ 116 4.3.5.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition ................................ 119 4.3.5.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............. 122. xiv.

(15) 4.3.5.4 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............................... 126 4.3.5.5 Summary ................................................................................. 128 4.3.6. Specific Strength .................................................................................... 128 4.3.6.1 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............................... 128. Durability Properties ............................................................................................ 129 4.4.1. ay. 4.4. a. 4.3.6.2 Summary ................................................................................. 129. Water Absorption ................................................................................... 129. al. 4.4.1.1 Effect of Different Fineness Modulus of Sand and Limestone. M. Powder Content in OPBC Concrete ........................................ 129 4.4.1.2 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse. of. Aggregate with OPBC in Dry Condition ................................ 130. ty. 4.4.1.3 Effect of Partial Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse. si. Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............. 131. 4.4.1.4 Effect of Incorporating of Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. ve r. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 132. 4.4.2. Sorptivity ................................................................................................ 134. U. ni. 4.4.2.1 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. 4.4.3. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 134. Porosity ................................................................................................... 135 4.4.3.1 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 135. 4.4.4. Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) ............................................ 137 4.4.4.1 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 137. xv.

(16) 4.4.5. Acid Attack ............................................................................................. 139 4.4.5.1 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 139. 4.4.6. Sulphate Attack ...................................................................................... 141 4.4.6.1 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 141 Drying Shrinkage ................................................................................... 143. a. 4.4.7. ay. 4.4.7.1 Effect of Full Substitution of Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate with OPBC and LECA in SSD Condition ............................... 143. al. 4.4.7.2 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast. 4.4.8. Summary ................................................................................................ 147. Environmental Assessment - Carbon Dioxide Emission ..................................... 149 Effect of Incorporating Fly Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. ty. 4.5.1. of. 4.5. M. Furnace Slag in OPBC Concrete ............................................. 145. 4.5.2. Summary ................................................................................................ 152. Shear Behaviour of OPBC Reinforced Concrete Beam Without Shear Link ..... 152. ve r. 4.6. si. in OPBC Concrete .................................................................................. 149. Structural Behaviour ............................................................................... 152. 4.6.2. Shear Behaviour of Beam....................................................................... 157. 4.6.3. Crack Behaviour ..................................................................................... 159. 4.6.4. Failure Mode .......................................................................................... 163. 4.6.5. Deflection ............................................................................................... 164. 4.6.6. Beam Cross-Sectional Strains Profile .................................................... 165. 4.6.7. Comparison of Experimental and Predicted Shear Strengths ................ 169. 4.6.8. Summary ................................................................................................ 172. U. ni. 4.6.1. xvi.

(17) CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES……………………………………………………………………………..175 5.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 175. 5.2. Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 175. 5.3. Recommendations for Future Studies .................................................................. 176. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 177. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND PAPERS PRESENTED .................................... 198. xvii.

(18) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Configuration of extraction processing OPBC (Yeong 2012)………. 15. Figure 2.2: Huge amount of OPBC in the palm oil mill.………….……............... 16. Figure 2.3: A lump of oil-palm-boiler clinker.…………………………............... 17 Figure 3.1: OPBC in a lump (Left) and OPBC as coarse aggregate after crushing (Right)……………………………………………………... 39. a. Figure 3.2: Sieve analysis grading curve …..……………………………………. 40. ay. Figure 3.3: Coarse aggregate of (a) LECA, (b) NWA and (c) OPBC...……......... 40 Figure 3.4: Schematic representation of the set-up for sorptivity test…..….......... 51. al. Figure 3.5: Reinforcement details of the beams without shear reinforcement…… 56. M. Figure 3.6: a). Test setup and Instrumentation; b). Locations of the Demec points in cross-section……..……………………………………………. 58. of. Figure 4.1: OPBC in the form of a lump ……..…………………………………. 61. ty. Figure 4.2: Relationship between slump and percentage substitution of coarse aggregate by oil-palm-boiler clinker………………………………… 63 Figure 4.3: OPBC in the form of a lump (left) and a coarse aggregate (right)…... 65. ve r. si. Figure 4.4: Relationship between density and percentage replacement of normal coarse aggregate by oil-palm boiler clinker and oil palm shell…..….. 69 Figure 4.5: Relationship between density and percentage replacement of normal coarse aggregate by OPBC, LECA and OPS….…………………….. 70. ni. Figure 4.6: Porous OPBC aggregates in concrete………………………………… 77. U. Figure 4.7: Relationship between 28-day compressive strength and oven dry density………..…………………….………………………………… 77 Figure 4.8: Scanning electron microscopy image for surface texture of (a) oilpalm-boiler clinker and (b) normal crushed granite…………………. 80 Figure 4.9: Scanning electron microscopy image of aggregates of (a) oil-palmboiler clinker and (b) lightweight expanded clay aggregate….……..... 83 Figure 4.10: Scanning electron microscopy image for surface texture of concrete containing oil-palm-boiler clinker and lightweight expanded clay aggregate……………………………………………………………. 84 Figure 4.11: Compressive strength development of concretes...…………………. 85. xviii.

(19) Figure 4.12: Development of compressive strength of concretes………………… 88 Figure 4.13: Relationship between the 28-day compressive and splitting tensile strengths of OPBC concrete……………..….…….………………… 99 Figure 4.14: Relationship between compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concretes containing oil-palm-boiler clinker at 28-day age………… 101 Figure 4.15: 28-day splitting tensile strength under AC, 7W and FW condition… 104 Figure 4.16: 28-day flexural strength under AC and FW condition……………… 113. ay. a. Figure 4.17: Relationship between relative modulus of elasticity and percentage replacement of normal coarse aggregate with oil-palm-boiler clinker and oil palm shell…………………………………………………… 119 Figure 4.18: Relationship between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of concrete containing oil-palm-boiler clinker at 28-day….. 121. M. al. Figure 4.19: Relationship between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of OPBC concrete at 28-day age………..…………………. 122. of. Figure 4.20: Compressive strength versus modulus of elasticity of mixes group A and B……………………………………………………………… 125 Figure 4.21: Experimental and theoretical modulus of elasticity of mixtures...….. 125. ty. Figure 4.22: Relationship between OPBC content and water absorption.……….. 130. si. Figure 4.23: Initial water absorption of concretes…..…………………………… 131. ve r. Figure 4.24: Relationship between mix of concrete and water absorption……….. 132 Figure 4.25: Water absorption of all mixes………………………………………. 133. ni. Figure 4.26: Sorptivity value of all mixes at the ages of 28-day…………………. 135 Figure 4.27: Porosity of all mixes………………………………………………… 136. U. Figure 4.28: Relationship between compressive strength and porosity of all mixes……………………………………………………………………………… 137 Figure 4.29: Mass loss of all mixes………………………………………………. 140 Figure 4.30: Compressive strength loss of all mixes...…………………………… 141 Figure 4.31: Effect of acid on colour and edge of concrete with and without FA and GGBFS…………………………………………………………. 141 Figure 4.32: Drying shrinkage development of the GC, CC, and LC mixes…..… 145 Figure 4.33: Drying shrinkage of all mixes………………………………………. 147 xix.

(20) Figure 4.34: Relationship between the carbon dioxide emission and OPBC concrete containing FA and GGBFS…………...…………………. 152 Figure 4.35: Shear behaviour of all the beams without shear reinforcement…...… 155 Figure 4.36: Ultimate load capacity of all the beams with the respective deflections…………………………………………………................ 157 Figure 4.37: Crack patterns and failure modes of all the beams…………………. 160 Figure 4.38: Development of cracks widths for all beams……………………….. 162. a. Figure 4.39: Digital extensometer to measure the cross-sectional strains of all the LWC beam………………………..………………………….... 166. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. Figure 4.40: Cross-sectional strains variation at mid-span during loading for all beams……………………………………………………………….. 168. xx.

(21) LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Comparison for the rate of fire between LWC and NWC (Martin et al. 2013)........................................................................................................ 6 Table 2.1: Physical properties of OPBC (Ahmad and Noor 2007)……...……....... 17 Table 2.2: Chemical composition of OPBC (Ahmmad et al. 2014)…..…………... 18 Table 2.3: Appropriate mix design for OPBC concrete (Mannan and Neglo 2010)……………………………………………………………...……. 19. a. Table 2.4: Mix Proportion of self-compacting concrete incorporating OPBC (Kanadasan and Razak 2014) …………………………..…………...… 20. ay. Table 3.1: The Chemical composition of OPC, FA, GGBFS and limestone powder (%) ………………...………………………………………….. 37. al. Table 3.2: Testing of aggregates………………………………………………...... 38. M. Table 3.3: Physical properties of OPBC…………………………………………... 39 Table 3.4: Physical properties of LECA………………………………………...… 41. of. Table 3.5: Physical properties of crushed granite and local mining sand.……….... 41. ty. Table 3.6: Mix proportions (kg/m3)…………………………………………..…… 42 Table 3.7: Mix proportions (kg/m3)……………………………………………….. 43. si. Table 3.8: Mix proportion of concrete (kg/m3) …………………………………… 44. ve r. Table 3.9: Mix proportions of the concretes (kg/m3) ……………………………... 45 Table 3.10: Mix proportion of concrete (kg/m3) ………………………………….. 45. ni. Table 3.11: Curing regimes ……………………………………………………... 47. U. Table 3.12: Classification of concrete recommended by ASTM C-1202-12 and AASHTO T 277-86 …………….…………………………………..... 53 Table 3.13: Concrete mix proportions (kg/m3)......................................................... 55 Table 3.14: Properties of the beams ………………………………………………. 56 Table 4.1: Slump and density of mixtures ……………………………………….. 61 Table 4.2: Slump and density of mixtures.……………………...………………… 62 Table 4.3: Slump and density of concrete …………………………………...…..... 64. xxi.

(22) Table 4.4: Slump and density of concrete ………………………………………… 65 Table 4.5: Slump and density of concrete ………………………………………… 66 Table 4.6: Compressive strength of concrete under full water curing1........……… 76 Table 4.7: Compressive strength under water curing1……………….…...……….. 79 Table 4.8: Compressive strength under full water curing…………………………. 83 Table 4.9: Compressive strength under different curing regimes…………………. 90. a. Table 4.10: Compressive strength under different curing conditions……………... 92. ay. Table 4.11: The compressive strength of concrete at the age of 28 days under different curing regimes……………..………………………………... 94. al. Table 4.12: The 28-day compressive strength of concrete under different curing conditions………….………………………………………………….. 95. M. Table 4.13: The 28-day compressive strength of concrete under different curing regimes…………….………………………………………………….. 96. of. Table 4.14: Splitting tensile strength of concrete under full water curing………... 98 Table 4.15: Splitting tensile strength of concrete under moist curing…………..… 100. ty. Table 4.16 Splitting tensile strength of concrete mixes (MPa)……………………. 103. si. Table 4.17: The measured 28-day compressive and splitting tensile strengths and the predicted splitting tensile strength from the equation (MPa)…..…. 106. ve r. Table 4.18: The splitting tensile strengths under water curing……………………. 109 Table 4.19: The ratio of 28-day splitting tensile strengths /compressive strength... 109. ni. Table 4.20: Flexural strength of concrete mixes (MPa)…………………………… 111. U. Table 4.21 Flexural strength of concrete mixes (MPa)……………………………. 112 Table 4.22: The measured 28-day compressive and flexural strengths and the predicted flexural strength from the equations (MPa)………………... 115 Table 4.23: Comparison of MOE with other researchers…………………………. 117 Table 4.24: Measured modulus of elasticity (GPa)……………………………….. 124 Table 4.25: The measured 28-day compressive strength and modulus of elasticity and the predicted modulus of elasticity from the equations (MPa)…... 127 Table 4.26: Chloride permeability and classification of concrete of all mixes in the age of 28 days…………….…………………………………….... 138 xxii.

(23) Table 4.27: Weight change of all mixes…………………………………………… 142 Table 4.28: Compressive strength after expose to MgSO4………………………… 143 Table 4.29: Carbon dioxide emission of OPBC concrete…………………………. 151 Table 4.30: Shear capacity to concrete density ratio…..………………………….. 159. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. Table 4.31: Comparison of experimental and predicted results for beams without shear reinforcements………………………...………………………… 172. xxiii.

(24) LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 3W. :. One day on mould, then two days curing in water.. 5W. :. One day on mould, then four days curing in water. 7W. :. One day on mould, then six days curing in water American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. AC. :. Air curing. ACI. :. American Concrete Institute. AS. :. Australian Standards. ASTM. :. American Society for Testing and Materials. BS. :. British Standards. CIDB. :. Construction Industry Development Board. CSA. :. Canadian Standard Association. DEMEC. :. Demountable Mechanical strain gauge. FA. :. Fly ash. FFB. :. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. AASHTO :. ve r. Fresh fruit bunched. :. Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte. FW. :. Continuous wet curing. GGBFS. :. Ground granulated blast furnace slag. HSC. :. High strength concrete. HSLWC. :. High strength lightweight concrete. IS. :. Indian Standard. ITZ. :. Interfacial transaction zone. IUTM. :. Instron Universal Testing Machine. LECA. :. Lightweight expanded clay aggregate. LVDT. :. Linear voltage differential transducers. U. ni. FIP. xxiv.

(25) :. Lightweight aggregate. LWAC. :. Lightweight aggregate concrete. LWC. :. Lightweight concrete. MOR. :. Modulus of rupture. MS. :. Malaysia Standard. NWA. :. Normal weight aggregate. NWC. :. Normal weight concrete. OPBC. :. Oil-palm-boiler clinker. OPBCC. :. Oil-palm-boiler clinker concrete. OPC. :. Ordinary Portland cement. OPS. :. Oil palm shell. POC. :. Palm oil clinker. POFA. :. Palm oil fuel ash. SCC. :. Self-compacting concrete. Sp. :. Superplasticizer. 𝑓𝑐𝑢. :. 𝑓𝑐𝑦. si. :. Cylinder compressive strength. 𝑓𝑡. :. Splitting tensile strength. 𝑓𝑟. :. Flexural strength. 𝑓𝑦. :. High yield strength. 𝑓𝑦𝑦. :. Yield strength. w/c. :. Water cement ratio. a/d. :. Shear span to effective depth ratio. Ρ. :. Tension reinforcement ratio. 𝑏𝑤. :. Width of the beam. 𝑑. :. Effective depth of the beam. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. LWA. U. ni. ve r. Cubical compressive strength. xxv.

(26) :. Shear resistance. 𝐴𝑠. :. Area of steel reinforcement. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. ay. a. 𝑉𝑐. xxvi.

(27) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Research Background. Concrete can be considered as one of the most popularly utilised and common building materials in the construction sector. It has been applied and developed over the years bringing prosperity to mankind. The great extent includes construction of an amazing. a. skyscraper rising over half-kilometre in Dubai. Besides, innovation and technology have. ay. made the buildings to be constructed to resist earthquake. This material, however, does not come without downsides to it. Concrete is considered as one of the highest demanded. al. substances in the building industry, however, such high demands are now becoming a. M. major threat to the environment. It is noted that cement production contributes to CO2 emission into the atmosphere by about 5 - 8% during the manufacturing concrete (Kajaste. of. and Hurme 2016). It also was reported by Chemistry World (2008) that cement reaction. ty. contributes about 5% of global CO2 emission every year during manufacturing concrete,. si. with around 3% contribution from fast-growing construction industry of China. This environmental concern is predicted to get worse with the annual cement production of. ve r. over two billion tonne, the production will be quadrupled from 1990 to the year 2050. It has been estimated by Mehta and Monteiro (2006) that CO2 emission is about 18 billion. ni. tonnes by year of 2050. Karen Scrivener, Leader of Construction Laboratory from Swiss. U. Federal Institute of Technology of Lausanne reported that “concrete has the least environmental impact compared to building materials such as steel and brick. The main environmental concern with concrete is the huge volume used”. Therefore, substitution. of concrete with other building materials cannot minimize but worse impact on the environmental sustainability. (Chemistry World 2008). Increasing volumes of concrete production will result in increasing consumption of existing natural materials, subsequently these natural resources will be depleted. As the. 1.

(28) world today is moving towards the direction of sustainability, the construction industry is still not moving in same direction of the world and this is because of the large volumes of concrete that is being produced and subsequently emitting CO2. At present, concrete industry is considered as not sustainable (Ramezanianpour et al. 2009). Therefore, the building industry, basically, cannot be treated as a “green” activity (Tam 2009). Swamy (2008) stated that the constituents of concrete can be selected to enable. a. optimization and maximizing its ability for a certain function. This is benefit to the. ay. improvement of concrete industry in future. It was reported by Mefteh et al. (2013) that the depletion of natural materials such as sand, gravel, rock and water are mainly. al. manipulated by the construction industry. Tu et al. (2006) also urged that the usage of. M. these natural resources was approximated to reach 12 billion tonnes yearly after 2010. To overcome this problem, Bremner (2001) ascertained that fly ash (FA), ground. of. granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA). ty. can be used to produce environmentally friendly lightweight concrete (LWC). Previous. si. researchers (Federico and Chidiac 2009; Meyer 2009) have utilised the unwanted or recycled materials such as used tyres, waste concrete and agricultural by-products as. ve r. replacement of concrete material.. Shafigh et al. (2014) reported the production of LWC is possible to utilise the. ni. agricultural wastes for partial or full replacement of crushed granite or sand in the. U. concrete mixture. They also revealed that agricultural wastes such as coconut shell, corn cob, oil palm shell (OPS) and tobacco wastes have been successfully utilised in manufacturing LWC by previous researchers. This concept of sustainability is therefore effectively promoted in the construction industry (Harimi et al. 2005; Ramezanianpour et al. 2009). Furthermore, incorporating recycled aggregates and unwanted materials in. manufacturing concrete could be considered as one of the way for solving the problem of waste’s disposal. However, Richardson et al. (2011) reported the properties of hardened. 2.

(29) concrete was hard to control due to recycled aggregates being highly sensitive to the moisture content. This report focuses on the evaluation of utilisation of OPBC as coarse aggregate to substitute normal weight coarse aggregate for sustainable high strength lightweight aggregate concrete (HSLWC) production. Research on using OPBC as a lightweight aggregate substitution is still rare. Therefore, investigation on mix design, mechanical. a. properties, durability and structural behaviour will persuade and promote the adoption of. ay. LWC incorporating OPBC in construction industry. In addition, the implementation of. 1.2.1. Lightweight Concrete. M. 1.2. al. sustainable practices in the construction industry can be well-maintained.. Background. of. The application of LWC in construction industry has commenced as early as before. ty. the days of the Roman Empire. Incorporation of pumice as a replacement of conventional aggregate was initially used to produce LWC. Burned lime was used as a cementitious. si. material in the mixture due to unavailability of cement at that time. The strength of these. ve r. earlier LWC was very low, unable to reach structural application. However, the durability of this LWC was excellent. It could be proven by the existing Mediterranean early. U. ni. structures (Lightweight Concrete History 2016).. 1.2.2. Definition of Lightweight Concrete. Cement content of LWC varies from 285 to 510 kg/m3 (Mannan and Neglo 2010). LWC has its weight considerably lower than that of concrete which consists of normal weight aggregate (NWA). The density of LWC is lower than that of normal weight concrete (NWC). Holm and Ries (2001) stated that the weight of LWC is lower than NWC by approximate 25 – 35%. Mackie (1985) also revealed that incorporation of LWC. 3.

(30) in the structure can decrease around 20% of self-weight in the structure. Subsequently, the overall construction cost is to be reduced by 10%. According to ASTM C330M-02 (2003), LWC exhibits air dry density of less than 1840 kg/m3. It was reported by BSI (1992) that oven dry density of LWC was stipulated by BS EN 206-1 as being 800 – 2000 kg/m3. According to Nowak and Rakozy (2011) that the density of NWC and LWC are 2240 - 2400 kg/m3 and 1440 - 1840 kg/m3,. a. respectively. Mehta and Menteiro (2006) reported that the oven dry density of structural. ay. LWC should not exceed 2000 kg/m3. According to the Canadian Standard (2004), the air. al. dry density and compressive strength at the age of 28 days of LWC should be more than. 2160 kg/m3 (Graybeal and Lwin 2013).. Classification of Lightweight Concrete. of. 1.2.3. M. 1850 kg/m3 and 20 MPa, respectively. In general, the density of LWC should less than. ty. For LWC, cement content of mixture varies from 285 to 510 kg/m3 (Mannan and. si. Neglo 2010). Based on application, LWC can be produced by many methods.. ve r. Replacement of the coarse and fine normal weoght aggregates, air-entraining, or by omitting one or more ingredients can reduce the concrete weight. LWC can be classified. ni. into the following three groups (Neville and Brooks 2008 and Ismail et al. 1991): Aerated Concrete. U. i.. Aerated concrete consists of binder material and fine aggregate. The source of. aggregate is from natural fine aggregate, raw pulverized-fuel ash, fine lightweight aggregate, ground slag and burnt shales. It is a type of finer powder and passing a 75 µm BS sieve. This concrete is produced by two methods, namely introducing air with an airentraining agent and injecting gas to initiate chemical reaction. The strength and density are in the range of 3 - 9 MPa and 460 - 750 kg/m3, respectively. 4.

(31) ii.. No-Fines Concrete. No-fines concrete is made of cement and coarse aggregate without fine aggregate. The source of aggregate is from natural aggregate and blast furnace slag. The nominal size of the aggregate is within 10 to 20 mm. The void is noticeable in the concrete. The strength and density are in the range of 1 - 8 MPa and 1750 - 1970 kg/m3, respectively. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete. a. iii.. ay. Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) consists of cement and replacement of. al. normal coarse and/or fine aggregate which is porous and of low specific gravity. The OPS, OPBC, lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA), shale, slate, pumice and. M. sintered aggregate are the lightweight aggregates which are capable of producing. of. structural lightweight concrete. The nominal size of the aggregate is between 20 mm and finer (Aslam et al. 2016). The strength of concrete can reach to structural application. The. ty. density is generally less than 2000 kg/m3 (Teo et al., 2006).. si. In view of its strength, lightweight can be further classified into three groups (Neville. ve r. and Brooks 2008):. Low-Density Concrete. ni. i.. U. This concrete possesses the strength in the range of 0.69 to 6.89 MPa with the density. of 300 to 800 kg/m3, respectively. Used for insulation and filling purposes. ii.. Moderate Strength Concrete. This concrete possesses the strength in the range of 6.89 – 17.0 MPa with density of 500 – 800 kg/m3. Used for insulation and filling purposes.. 5.

(32) iii.. Structural Concrete. This concrete possesses strength of not less than 17.0 MPa as stated in ACI 213R (ACI 2003) with density of 1350 – 1900 kg/m3. Used for structural purposes. 1.2.4 i.. Benefit of Lightweight Concrete Reduction of Dead Load. ay. a. Mackie (1985) reported incorporation of LWC in structures could reduce around 20% of the dead load, which led to about 10% of saving on construction cost. With the lighter. al. dead weight, the size of structures could be reduced, and the amount of steel. M. reinforcement required could also be reduced. As compared to conventional concrete, the. ii.. of. weight of LWC is reduced by approximately 25% to 35% (Holm and Ries 2001). Good Thermal Behaviour. ty. As compared to NWC, the thermal expansion of LWC is low with good fire-resistant.. si. Martin et al. (2013) reported that building up a thinner slab with fire rating using LWC. ve r. could decrease the building weight leading to reduce in construction cost. Table 1.1 shows comparison for the rate of fire with the thickness of slab between LWC and NWC.. U. ni. Table 1.1: Comparison for the rate of fire between LWC and NWC (Martin et al. 2013) Rate of Fire (hours) 1 2 3. Thickness of Slab (cm) LWC. NWC. 6.7 8.3 10.6. 8.9 11.4 13.3. 6.

(33) iii.. Good Earthquake Resistance. The research from National Science Foundation in 1982 reported that the column made of both LWC and NWC exhibited similar performance when subjected to seismic load. iv.. Low Cost. ay. a. The use of recycled or by-product lightweight aggregate can produce LWC with saving overall construction cost. Inclusion of LWA in concrete can directly reduce the. al. dead load of structure, subsequently, the use of steel bar and concrete will decrease.. Internal Curing. of. v.. M. Therefore, the overall construction cost can significantly be reduced.. LWC which made of porous lightweight aggregate can perform internal curing. The. ty. effective cement hydration can be achieved with sufficient water as internal curing. si. function (Mousa et al. 2014). Holm and Ries (2001) revealed that further improvement. ve r. of quality of LWC over time could be achieved by acceleration of the cement hydration through internal curing. Internal curing is also benefited by shorter moist curing period.. ni. Shorter curing time is advantageous as the cost of curing is between 0.1% and 0.5% of. U. concrete building price (Aitcin et al. 2004). vi.. Good Sound Insulation. The porous lightweight aggregates with air voids provide a good sound insulation property to lightweight aggregate (Fathollah and Shafigh 2012).. 7.

(34) vii.. Environment Friendly. The utilisation of unwanted materials helps to promote sustainable practices in the construction industry. Kanadasan and Razak (2015a) revealed that full replacemment of NWA with OPBC aggregate could reduce 22.62% of emission of CO2. Limitation of Lightweight Concrete. 1.2.5. Water Sensitivity. ay. a. i.. Moisture content is one of the crucial concerns in LWC. Prior to mixing, the water. al. absorption of lightweight aggregate is always required to be tested. Therefore, moisture. M. content in the concrete mix can complete the process of cement hydration. It is recommended to use aggregates in condition of saturated surface dry (SSD) in the. Difficulty in Casting and Finishing. ty. ii.. of. mixture.. si. It is difficult in casting and finishing of LWC because of the porosity and the irregular. ve r. shape of the lightweight aggregate. Segregation may occur during mixing LWC. To have ease of casting and finishing, some superplasticizing admixtures are added into the. ni. concrete mixture (Asik 2006).. U. iii.. Longer Mixing Time. As compared to NWC, concrete made of lightweight aggregates is required to be mixed over a longer time (Concrete Construction 1961). It was reported by Clarke (1993) that during mixing of LWC, sufficient the time for allowing aggregate to absorb the mixing water is needed. To overcome the appearance of “concrete balls” in concrete mixture, mixing time should not be too long.. 8.

(35) iv.. Susceptible to bleeding. According to IDE (2015), the unhydrated cement paste can cause surface bleeding of LWC. The surface of hardened concrete may appear laitance from the bleeding cement paste. It was reported by Clarke (1993) that other than excessive water, bleeding can appear because of shortage of sand in the mixture. Problem Statement. a. 1.3. ay. Strength and workability of concrete are always essential parameters to be considered. al. during the manufacturing. A proper way of mixture proportioning is required to attain concrete of desired strength and good workability. In general, for a large project, such as. M. high-rise building, there is a requirement of using high strength concrete to compensate. of. both dead load and live load, of the structures.. One of the recent focus of the concrete materials is to develop high strength lightweight. ty. aggregate concrete (HSLWC). In the past, many researchers have noticed the benefits of. si. using HSLWC is to improve structural efficiency because of reducing self-weight of the. ve r. structure and therefore reduction of construction cost. Mehta and Monteiro (2006) revealed that as compared to conventional concrete, HSLWC with compressive strength. ni. and density of 41 MPa and 1840 kg/m3, respectively, is able to construct further 17 more. U. floors (from 35 storeys increasing to 52 storeys). Meanwhile, in the view of development of sustainability, researchers are challenged. to investigate the suitable aggregates for incorporation in LWC to avoid further depleting natural resources. According to recent researches, it is noted that the utilisation of agricultural wastes sourced from palm oil industry, such as oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) and oil palm shell (OPS) can be treated as lightweight aggregate to replace. 9.

(36) normal aggregate. Utilisation of this unwanted materials not only solve the disposal problem but also conserve limited natural aggregates at the same time. Natural, artificial or used lightweight aggregates are available in the market, such as LECA, GGBFS, FA, OPS, OPBC etc. However, only suitable lightweight aggregate with the correct mix proportions can produce HSLWC. From structural application in construction industry point of view, the development of OPBC as lightweight aggregate. a. has commenced in Malaysia for more than 25 years (Kamaruddin 1991). The inclusion. ay. of OPBC as lightweight aggregate for coarse and fine aggregate in producing HSLWC in. al. reinforced concrete beam with density and compressive strength of 1837.8 kg/m3 and 39.8 MPa, respectively, was achieved by Mohammed et al. (2013) in Malaysia. However,. M. OPBC LWC is not widely used in the construction industry. The main reason is the lack. of. of knowledge and expertise among developers, consultants and contractors related to the mechanical properties and behaviour of OPBC LWC applied to building structures. The. ty. density of pure OPBC LWAC is high compared to other LWAC incorporating artificial. si. lightweight aggregates or some natural lightweight aggregates such as OPS, unable to. ve r. meet the requirements of LWAC. Furthermore, OPBC is a highly porous material on the surface. During mixing, part of mixing water is absorbed by the porous OPBC grain,. ni. subsequently, the workability of fresh concrete reduced. As a result, the workability of. U. OPBC concrete did not meet the requirement of industry practice. In addition, information. on mechanical properties, durability and structural behaviour particularly in shear behaviour of OPBC reinforced concrete beam are lacking. Consideration of the above drawbacks of OPBC, the present research program focused. on the development of HSLWC with good workability using OPBC lightweight aggregate. Besides, the engineering properties (mechanical and durable properties) and shear behaviour of HSLWC incorporating OPBC were also investigated.. 10.

(37) 1.4. Aims and Objectives of the Research General Objective. 1.4.1. The main objective of this research is to produce high strength lightweight aggregate concrete with compressive strength of more than 50 MPa, dry density of lower than 2000 kg/m3 and good workability by using of oil-palm-boiler clinke (OPBC) for structural. Specific Objectives. To evaluate the fresh and hardened properties of oil-palm-boiler clinker. al. i.. ay. 1.4.2. a. purposes.. M. (OPBC) high strength lightweight aggregate concrete, such as slump,. of elasticity. ii.. of. compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus. To investigate the effects of different curing conditions on compressive. To evaluate environmental assessment and durability properties in terms of. ve r. iii.. si. concrete.. ty. strength of oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) high strength lightweight aggregate. water absorption, porosity, rapid chloride permeability, sorptivity, acid and. ni. sulphate resistance and drying shrinkage of oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC). U. high strength lightweight aggregate concrete.. iv.. To evaluate the shear behaviour of reinforced concrete beams made with normal weight aggregate (NWA), oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC), oil palm shell (OPS) and oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) incorporating fly ash (FS), limestone powder, respectively.. 11.

(38) 1.5. Scope of the Study. The experimental program of this study covered the following: i.. Investigate the physical properties of oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC), lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) and normal weight aggregate (NWA).. ii.. Identify the mechanical properties of lightweight, semi-lightweight and normal. ay. iii.. a. weight concrete.. Evaluate the environmental assessment and durability properties in term of. al. water absorption, porosity, sorptivity, chloride permeability, acid and sulphate. M. resistance and drying shrinkage of oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) lightweight concrete (LWC) incorporating fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast. Evaluate the shear behaviour of six reinforced concrete beams (one normal. ty. iv.. of. furnace slag (GGBFS).. Layout of Thesis. ve r. 1.6. si. weight concrete beam and five lightweight concrete beams).. This thesis consisted of five chapters. A brief description of the contents of each. ni. chapter is presented as below:. U. Chapter one delivers the general introduction on the research background, specified. research needs, objectives and the thesis layout. Chapter two provides literature reviews based on the data obtained from publications and online resources which are useful and relevant to the current research program.. 12.

(39) Chapter three presents the methodology adopted in this study which are included the materials used, properties of materials, mix design, method of preparing specimens and method of testing. Chapter four presents the results and discussion for freshed and hardened concrete. The environmental assessment, durability properties and shear behaviour are also presented in this chapter.. ay. a. Lastly, chapter five summarizes the conclusions of the major findings in the present. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. M. al. research and some recommendations for future study.. 13.

(40) CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction. Malaysia is one of the major palm oil exporter in the world consisting of 39% of global palm oil manufacturing and the 44% exports of global palm oil (Malaysian Palm Oil Council 2016). However, Mannan and Neglo (2010) reported that the palm oil mill located in Sabah has produced the wastes from manufacturing, namely OPBC around. ay. a. 45,750 m3 every year. Due to such high volume of wastes from the palm oil mill, disposal of the wastes has been seriously encountered in Malaysia. It was recommended by Ahmad. al. et al. (2007) that one of the proper way to cope of this issue is by processing OPBC to. Source. ty. 2.2.1. Oil-Palm-Boiler Clinker as a Lightweight Aggregate. of. 2.2. M. produce high strength concrete.. si. Oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) is an agricultural by-product that originated from the. ve r. palm oil mill in Malaysia. OPBC is considered as an agricultural solid waste manufactured from burning of fresh fruit bunches (FFBs), fibres and shells to produce. ni. steam as fuel for generation of current supply at the palm oil mill. The FFBs, fibres and shells are from oil palm tree which originated from West Africa (Lee and Ofori-Boateng. U. 2013). Kanadasan and Abdul Razak (2015) revealed that these wastes are widely accumulated in plantation area or used for filling up pothole prior to the construction of. road works. Due to excess of OPBC in the oil palm industry, there is a little selling value in the market. Utilisation of OPBC is one of the way to minimize the demanding natural aggregates in the construction industry (Shafigh et al. 2014b). Therefore, not only reduce the depletion of natural resources in construction industry but also solve the disposal of waste problem facing in palm oil industry. 14.

(41) 2.2.2. Production. The configuration process of extraction of oil-palm-boiler clinker is shown in Figure 2.1. Prior to stripping process, the raw palm oil is required to be sterilized and softened through boiling with the hot water. Then, the raw palm oil is to be stripped off by pouring into a rotating drum. The fresh fruit bunches (FFBs) and oil palm shell are separated after the stripping process. The FFBs are crushed and extracted out the crude palm oil in the. a. oil palm mill. After extracting process, the seed, fibres and shells are left as residues. The. ay. palm oil seed will be separated from shells and fibres. The shells and fibres are considered. al. as fibrous material can be further processed to be the fuel used for operation of mill. However, both oil palm fibres and shells are placed into boiler combustion with more. M. than 5000C temperature for more than 24 hours, then generate electricity and supply to. of. the mill for daily operation. This combustion process will produce the hard, porous and lump material. Yeong (2012) reported that it is widely called as palm oil clinker (POC). U. ni. ve r. si. ty. or oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC).. Sterilizing. Stripping. Extracting. Separation. Burning. Collecting. Figure 2.1: Configuration of extraction processing OPBC (Yeong 2012). 15.

(42) 2.2.3. Physical Properties. The huge amounts of OPBC are produced from oil palm mill as shown in Figure 2.2. A lump of OPBC is porous with the grey colour from furnace as shown in Figure 2.3. The shape is irregular and thorn. The OPBC is suitable for preparation of fine or coarse aggregate in mixture. Ahmad et al. (2007) reported that OPBC particles are normally washed and crushed into a nominal size of 20 mm and passing through 4.75 mm sieve as. a. substitution of conventional coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. OPBC is also. ay. suitable used as binder replacement through grinding into finer size (Kanadasan and. al. Razak 2015).. M. Aggregates with dry unit weights not more than 1200 kg/m3 are classified as lightweight aggregate (Owens 1993). It was reported by Ahmad and Noor (2007) that the. U. ni. ve r. si. ty. of. physical properties of OPBC as coarse and fine aggregates are as shown in Table 2.1.. Figure 2.2: Huge amount of OPBC in the palm oil mill. 16.