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KEY PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ISLAMIC BRAND MODEL WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO ISLAMIC BRAND ATTIRE
By
MUHAMMAD SAIFUL ISLAM ISMAIL
Thesis Submitted to
'
Pusat Pengajian Perniagaan Islam
ISLAMIC BUSINESS SCHOOL
~:,...~1 ~YI i)JJ ~ Universiti Utara Malaysia
PERAKUAN KERJA TESIS/DISERT ASI
(Certification of thesis/dissertation)
Kami, yang bertandatangan, memperakukan bahawa (We, the undersigned, certify that)
MUHAMMAD SAIFUL ISLAM BIN ISMAIL (900453)
Calon untuk ijazah
(candidate for the degree o~
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (ISLAMIC MANAGEMENT)
telah mengemukakan tesisldisertasi yang bertajuk:
(has presented his/her thisisldissertation of the following title):
· Key principles and characteristics of an Islamic brand model with special referenct: to Islamic brand attire.
seperti yang tercatat dimusurat tajuk dan kulit tesisldisertasi.
( as if appears on the title page and front cover of the thesis/dissertation)
Bahawa tesisldisertasi.tersebut boleh diterima dari segi bentuk serta kandungan dan meliputi bidang ilmu dengan memuaskan, sebagaimana yang ditunjukkan oleh calon dalam ujian lisan yang diadakan pada:
13 Ogos 2018
(That the said thesis/dissertation is acceptable in form and content and displays a satisfactory knowledge of the field of study as demonstrated by the candidate tflrough an oral examination held on:
13 August 2018
Pengerusi Viva (Chairman for Viva)
Pemeriksa Luar (External Examiner)
Pemeriksa Dalam (Internal Examiner)
Prof . Madya Dr. Ahmad Bashir bin Aziz
Prof. Dr. Mohd Sakri@Syukri bin Salleh
Prof. Dr. Abdullah bin Hj Abdul Ghani T andatangan (Signature
Nama Pelajar (Name of Student)
Tajuk Tesis/Disertasi
Title of the Thesis/ Dissertation )
Program Pengajian (Programme of Study)
Nama Penyelia/Penyelia-Penyelia (Name of Supervisor/Supervisors)
Nama Penyelia/Penyelia-Penyelia (Name of Supervisor/Supervisors)
Muhammad Saiful Islam bin Ismail (900453)
Key principles and characteristics of an Islamic brand model with special reference to Islamic brand attire.
Doctor of Philosophy
Dr. Nursiha bt Alias
Tandatangan
Dr. Mohd Shahril bin Ahmad Razimi
PERMISSION TO USE
ln presenting this thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) from the Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), I agree that the Library of this university may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by my supervisor(s) or in their absence, by the Dean of Othman Y eop Abdullah Graduate School of Business where I did my thesis. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts ofit for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the UUM in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Request for permission to copy or to make other use of materials in this thesis in whole or in part should be addressed to:
Dean,
Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia,
06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and Most Merciful and also peace been upon to the Prophet Muhammad SAW as the Messenger. First and foremost, praises and thanks to Allah SWT for His bounties of blessings throughout my journey in order to complete the research successfully.
"Alhamdulillah! ! "
I wish to express my utmost gratitude to my beloved supervisors Dr. Nursiha Alias, and Dr. Mohd Shahril Ahmad Razimi for their supervision, support, valuable advice, critics and encouragement during the entire journey. Also, FRGS team members, Dr. Muhammad Noor Habibi Hj Long, and Dr. Mohd Murshidi Mohd Noor. Their commitment, care and responsiveness made a huge difference in this journey. I want to thank my examiners, Professor Dr. Abdullah Hj. Abdul Ghani
and Prof Shukri Sall eh for the valuable suggestions, guidance and compassion.
Furthermore, no collection of words can best express my deep gratitude to my lovely wife, Tengku Wasimah, and my beautiful daughter, Huwaida Muhammad Saiful Islam for the encouragement, understanding, patience and love gave me the emotional strengths to pursue this program. I also express my appreciation to my parents, Mr. Ismail Din and Mrs. Iman Ibrahim, for giving me the incessant care and affection that gave me strength in completing my research. I also would like to express my gratitude to my in-laws, Mr. Raja Harun and Mrs Shamsiah, my siblings, Raihan, Ahmad, and Syaimak, as well as my sister in-law, Tengku Wirda, Tengku Wajihah, and Ikha Annisya.
Lastly, I acknowledge my friends who have always supported and especially looked out for me during the period of the study. They include my best friends, Suheil Che Sobry, Ahmad Asyraf Mustafa, Syed Azlan al-Joffrey, and others.
Jazakumullah Khoiran Kathira!
ABSTRACT
Back in 2007, Islamic brands captivated the attention of marketing scholars. Most previous studies regarding Islamic brands adapted the conventional brand theories and models in examining Muslim consumers' behaviour towards a brand. The adaptation of the conventional brand theory is inappropriate to explain from the Islamic point of view. Based on the call for the development of an Islamic brand, this study aimed to develop the Islamic brand model from the Islamic perspectives specifically in Islamic attire. Hence, the four objectives of this study were to: (a) explore the meaning oflslamic brand, (b) explore the characteristics of the Islamic brand, ( c) identify the characteristics of the Islamic principles in shaping the Islamic brand attire, and (d) investigate firms' current practice in the Islamic brand attire industry. A qualitative approach was employed to gather information for the study through: (a) literature review, (b) interviews [thirty four (34) Islamic experts and thirteen ( 1 3 ) firms], and (c) the observation method. The data analysis used the thematic analysis by applying the method of istidlal. The results demonstrate that:
(a) the definition oflslamic brand should consist of three principals; aqidah, sharia, and akhlak, (b) there are three main characteristics in the Islamic brand, i.e. aqidah, sharia, and akhlak, ( c) there are relationships between aqidah, sharia, and akhlak in shaping the Islamic brand, and (d) only a few firms comply with the Islamic brand core principles while the others are still based on the conventional brand value and aspiration. This research complements the conceptual contribution (new knowledge of definition, characteristics, and interaction between Islamic core principles and Islamic brand attire) and the methodological contribution ( epistemology and ontology from the Islamic perspective, and applying the method of istidlal in the thematic data analysis). Lastly, the findings can be used by Muslim and non-Muslim firms in designing the product.
Keywords: Islamic brand, belief {aqidah), sharia and morality (akhlak), libas at
taqwa.
ABSTRAK
Semenjak tahun 2007, jenama Islam telah menjadi tumpuan sarjana dalam bidang pemasaran. Kebanyakan kajian lepas mengenai jenama Islam menggunakan teori dan model jenama konvensional dalam mengenal pasti tingkah laku pengguna Muslim terhadap jenama tersebut. Adaptasi dari teori jenama konvensional ini kurang sesuai digunakan untuk memberikan penjelaskan dari perspektif Islam.
Berdasarkan cadangan kajian lepas dalam membangunkan jenama Islam, kajian ini dijalankan untuk membentuk satu model jenama menurut perspektif Islam khususnya dalam jenama pakaian Islam. Oleh yang demikian, terdapat empat objektif utama kajian iaitu, a) meneroka maksud jenama Islam b) meneroka ciri
ciri jenama Islam, c) mengenal pasti ciri-ciri prinsip Islam dalam membentuk jenama pakaian Islam, dan d) meneliti amalan semasa finna dalam industri pakaian jenama Islam. Pendekatan kualitatif telah digunakan untuk mengumpul maklumat kajian melalui: a) kajian literatur, b) kaedah temu bual [bersama tiga puluh empat (34) pakar ilmuan Islam dan tiga belas (13) finna jenama Islam], serta c) kaedah pemerhatian. Analisis data kajian menggunakan analisis tematik melalui kaedah istidlal. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan a) definisi jenama Islam harus terdiri daripada tiga prinsip iaitu: aqidah, syariah, dan akhlak, b) terdapat tiga ciri utama dalam jenama Islam, iaitu aqidah, syariah, dan akhlak, c) terdapat hubung kait di antara aqidah, syariah, dan akhlak dalam membentuk jenama pakaian Islam, dan d) hanya beberapa firma yang mematuhi prinsip-prinsip utama dalamjenama Islam, manakala kebanyakan firma lain masih mengikuti nilai-nilai dan aspirasi jenama konvensional. Kajian ini memberi sumbangan dari sudut konseptual (pengetahuan baharu mengenai definisi, ciri, dan interaksi antara prinsip-prinsip teras Islam dalam jenama pakaian Islam), metodologi ( epistemologi dan ontologi dari perspektif Islam, serta menggunakan kaedah istidlal dalam analisis data secara tematik). Akhir sekali, basil kajian ini dapat dimanfaatkan sepenuhnya oleh firma Muslim dan bukan Muslim dalam mereka bentuk produk.
Kata kunci: jenama Islam, kepercayaan (aqidah), syariah dan moral (akhlak), libas at-taqwa.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PERMISSION TO USE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .ii
ABSTRACT iii
ABSTRAK iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION I
1.0 Introduction I
1.1 Background of study I
1 .2 Problem statement 4
I .3 Research questions 12
1.4 Research objectives 12
1. 5 Contributions of the study 13
1. 6 Scope and limitation of the study 14
1.7 Organization of chapters 1 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ON THEORIES AND DEFINITIONS OF BRAND FROM THE CONVENTIONAL
PERSPECTIVE 17
2.0 Introduction 17
2.1 History of brand 18
2.2 The development of conventional brand theories 20 2.2.1 Initial Phase of Brand Development before the 1970s until 1980s 20
2.2.2 During the 1990s until 21'' century 23
a) Brand theories from firm's perspective 24
b) Brand theories from consumer's perspective 25
c) Brand theories from both perspectives 27
2.3 Conventional definition of brand 29
2.3.1 Brand as a logo 30
2.3.2 Brand as a legal instrument 31
2.3.3 Brand as a company 32
2.3.4 Brand as an identity system 33
2.3.5 Brand as an adding value 34
2.3.6 Brand as a value system 36
2.3.7 Brand as shorthand 37
2.3.8 Brand as a risk reducer 38
2.3.9 Brand as an image in consumers' mind 38
2 . 3 . 1 0 Brand as a personality 39
2 . 3 . 1 1 Brand as a relationship 40
2.3.12 Brand as an evolving entity 41
2.4 Critical review on research gap of brand 47 2.4.1 Strengths/advantages of brand from the conventional viewpoint 47
a) Enhances product recognition 48
b) Helps build brand loyalty 48
c) Prevents trademark infringement 49
d) Builds brand equity 50
e) Assists firms to discover the finest strategy to 5 1 2.4.2 Limitations/weaknesses of brand from the conventional viewpoint .. 52
a) Is based on capitalist aspiration 52
b) Is directed to improve firm's behaviour rather consumers' behaviour .. 62 c) Suffers due to immoral behaviour of consumers and firms 62 d) Uses research method that neglects the Islamic perspective 64
2.5 Conclusion 66
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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW: DEVELOPMENT OF
ISLAMIC BRAND 67
3 .0 Introduction 67
3.1 The Development oflslamic Brand 67
3. 1 . 1 Definition of Islamic brand 68
3 .1. 2 Review of the existing Islamic brand frameworks or model 72
a) Islamic brand based on Alserhan's work 72
b) Theory of brand architecture in Islamic brand based on Temporal 81
c) Islamic brand identity of Alihodzic 84
d) Islamic brand personality of Ahmed and Jan 85
3.2 Critical reviews on research gap oflslamic brand studies 87 3.2.1 Strength/advantages of Islamic brand studies 87
a) High demand from Muslim market 88
b) Enhances Islamic brand product recognition 89
3.2.2 Limitations/weaknesses oflslamic brand 89
a) Defining Islamic brand b conventional brand pivot is inappropriate 90
b) Focusing on sharia compliance 92
c) Islamic brand based on country of origin and brand architecture
irrelevant 93
d) Not seeking Islamic values 94
e) Improper research method to understand Islamic brand 94
3.3 Summary of previous Islamic brand studies 96
3 .4 The core Islamic principles in Islamic brand 98
3.4.1 Aqidah (Belief) IOI
3.4.2 Sharia (Islamic law) 107
3.4.3 Akh/ak (Morality) 1 12
3.5 Libas at-taqwa 1 1 6
3.5.1 Definition of libas at-taqwa 1 1 6
3.5.2 Characteristics of libas at-taqwa ..................•... 1 1 8
a) Devotion to Allah SWT 1 18
b) Dress covering the awrah .........•... 1 1 9
c) Does not resemble the attire of men or women 124
d) The cloth from the permissible sources 124
e) Dress of modesty (not pretentious and vanitied) 126 t) Dissembles clothes with the infidels (kuf!ar) 129
3.6 Conclusion 1 3 0
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 132
4.0 Introduction 132
4.1 Research methodology 132
4 .1.1 Epistemology: Secularism vs Islamic perspective 133 4.1.2 Ontology: Secularism vs Islamic perspective 1 3 8
4 . 1 .3 Methodological assumptions 142
4.1.4 Axiology: secularism vs Islamic perspective 144
4.2 Research design 146
4.2.1 Activity I: Literature review 148
4.2.2 Activity 2: Observation 149
4.2.3 Activity 3: Identifying sampling method and unit of analysis 150
4.2.4 Activity 4: Interview protocol 152
4.2.5 Activity 5: interview procedures 154
a) First group interviews (Islamic experts) I 55
b) Second group interviews (Islamic brand attire firms) 160
4.2.6 Activity 6: Data Analysis Procedure 1 6 1
a) Data management 162
b) Descriptive accounts 164
c) Explanatory accounts 166
d) Trustworthiness (validity and reliability) 166
4.3 Conclusion 174
CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 175
5.0 Introduction 175
5 . 1.1 Thematic analysis 176
Brand in the sense of sharia 182
Brand in the sense of akhlak 183
c)
5.2 Findings on Islamic brand 1 8 1
5.2.1 Findings on the definition oflslamic brand 1 8 1
a) Brand in the sense of aqidah 1 8 1
b)
5.2.2 Findings on the characteristics of Islamic principles 184
a) Aqidah in Islamic brand 184
b) Sharia in Islamic brand 185
c) Akhlak in Islamic brand 187
5.2.3 Findings on Islamic principles in shaping Islamic brand 189 a) The association between aqidah and sharia 189
b) The association between aqidah and akhlak 190
c) The association between sharia and akhlak 1 9 1 d) The association between aqidah, sharia and akhlak 193
i.Finding on definition of libas at-taqwa 193
11. Finding on characteristics of libas at-taqwa 196 5.2.4 Findings in current practice on Islamic brand attire 202
a) Business operations 206
b) Brand name and inspiration 207
c) Understanding of firms on libas at-taqwa and its characteristics 209
5.3 Conclusion 2 1 5
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION 221
6.0 Introduction 221
6.1 The definition ofislamic brand 221
6.2 Characteristics of Islamic brand 223
6.2.1 Aqidah in Islamic brand 224
6.2.2 Sharia in Islamic brand 226
6.2.3 Akhlak in Islamic brand 228
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6.3.1 The association between aqidah and sharia 230 6.3.2 The association between aqidah and akhlak 231
6.3.3 The association between sharia and akhlak 233
6.4.4 The association between aqidah, sharia, akhlak 238 6.4 The application of association between aqidah, sharia, and akhlak in
current practice on Islamic brand attire 239
6.5 Conclusion 240
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION, CONTRIBUTIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 241
7 .0 Introduction 241
7.1 Conclusion of study 241
7.2 Research contributions 244
7.2.1 Conceptual contribution 246
7 .2.2 Methodological contribution 248
7.3 Recommendations for future research 255
7.4 Conclusion 256
REFERENCES 258
APPENDIX A (CD room) 286
APPENDIX B (Interview protocol: Islamic expert) 287 APPENDIX C (Interview protocol: Islamic brand attire firm) 291
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 History of brand 19
Table 2.2 The initial phase of brand development before 1970s until 22 1980s
Table 2.3 Conventional brand theories from firm's perspective 25 Table 2.4 Conventional brand theories from consumer's perspective 26 Table 2.5 Conventional brand theories from both perspective 28
Table 2.6 Thematic twelve definitions of brand 42
Table 2.7 Twelve thematic brand definition under marketing formula 46
Table 3.1 Definition of Islamic brand 69
Table 3.2 Review of the existing Islamic brand frameworks or model 74 Table 3.3 Studies on factors that influence Muslim consumer attitude 77
towards the brand
Table 3.4 Definition and characteristics of libas at-taqwa 1 1 7 Table 4.1 Summary of philosophical assumptions on research 132
methodolozv
Table 4.2 Research design 147
Table 4.3 Interview procedures 155
Table 4.4 Categories of expert interviewed 157
Table 4.5 Categories of firm interviewed 161
Table 4.6 Colour coding for the different themes 165 Table 4.7 Criteria of validity and reliability in trnstworthiness employed 167
by the present research
Table 5.1 Dilalat mantuq on principle of sharia 179
Table 5.2 Dilalat mafhum on principles of sharia 180
Table 5.3 Brand in the sense of aqidali 182
Table 5.4 Brand in the sense of sharia 183
Table 5.5 Brand in the sense of akhlak 183
Table 5.6 Aqidah in Islamic brand: worship Allah 184
Table 5.7 Bay' mabrur in the sense of aqidah 185
Table 5.8 Sharia in Islamic brand: halal, haram, and syubhah 186
Table 5.9 Bay' mabrur in the sense of sharia 186
Table 5.10 Akhlak in Islamic brand: ethics and manners in Islamic brand 187
Table 5.11 Bay' mabrur in the sense of akhlak 188
Table 5.12 Association between aqidah and sharia: to get reward and 189 avoid punishment
Table 5.13 Association between aqidah and akhlak: preventing the 190 element of khurafat and tasyabbuh
Table 5.14 Association between aqidah and akhlak: brand based on 191 education for mardhatil/ah
Table 5.15 Association between sharia and akhlak: brand based on 19 1 honesty and trnstworthiness
Table 5.16 Association between sharia and akhlak: brand name 192 Table 5.17 Association between sharia and akhlak: brand innovation 193
Table 5.18 Libas at-taqwa on faith 194
Table 5.19 Libas at-taqwa on amal as-solih (good deeds) 194
Table 5.20 Libas at-taqwa on fear of Allah 195
Table 5.21 Libas at-taqwa as nature of shame 195
Table 5.22 Libas at-taqwa as covering awrah 196
Table 5.23 Bring devotion to Allah SWT 197
Table 5.24 Covering the awrah 198
Table 5.25 Dissembling the attire of men and women 198 Table 5.26 Fabric must be from permissible sources 198
Table 5.27 Modesty and not for pretention and vanity 199
Table 5.28 Dissembling the kuffar 199
Table 5.29 Islamic brand core principles 200
Table 5.30 Positive views on Islamic brand attire 202 Table 5.31 Negative views on Islamic brand attire in neglecting sharia 203
features
Table 5.32 Negative views on Islamic brand attire in identity 203 Table 5.33 Negative views on Islamic brand attire in exploitation of 204
religion
Table 5.34 Application of libas at-taqwa 205
Table 5.35 Business operation 207
Table 5.36 Brand name of owner or daughter/son 207
Table 5.37 Brand name based on Muslimah identity 208 Table 5.38 Brand name based on animals, flowers, and things 208
Table 5.39 Brand inspiration: charity reason 208
Table 5.40 Brand inspiration: Musliman identity and Islamic 209 characteristics
Table 5.41 Brand inspiration: consumer demand 209
Table 5.42 Understanding Ii bas at-taqwa: sharia compliance and 2 1 0 covering the awrah
Table 5.43 Understanding libas at-taqwa on faith 2 1 0 Table 5.44 Understanding libas at-taqwa on good deeds and shame 2 1 0 Table 5.45 No understanding of libas at-taqwa 2 11 Table 5.46 Characteristics of libas at-taqwa: for the sake of Allah SWT 2 1 1 Table 5.47 Characteristics of libas at-taqwa: fulfil sharia features ( cover 212
awrah)
Table 5.48 Current trend, the quality of fabric, colours, and reasonable 212 price
Table 5.49 Suggested guideline or parameters of Islamic brand attire for 214 '
Table 5.50 Suggestion on firms' awareness 215
Table 5.51 Suggestions on enforcement 2 1 5
Table 5.52 Conclusion of findings 2 1 6
Table 7.1 Descriptions of Summers (2001): the academic contributions 245 Table 7.2 Comparative studies in research contribution between previous 252
literature with oresent research
· ~1 ----4---1 I
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Formula of marketing definition 44
Figure 3.1 "Categories of Islamic brand" 73 Figure 3.2 Conceptual framework for Islamic branding. 76 Figure 3.3 The suggestion method oflslamic brand paradigm. 78 Figure 3.4 Creating Islamic brand communities. 79 Figure 3.5 Dimensions of holistic Islamic brand. 80
Figure 3.6 'Typology of Islamic brands. 82
Figure 3.7 Conceptual framework connecting chapters and theories. 85
Figure 3.8 Islamic brand personality model. 86
Figure 4.1 Process of analysis. 162
Figure 5.1 Making sense of content or word from informants. 177 Figure 5.2 Model oflslamic brand principles and its characteristics 201
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AMA American Marketing Association
coo
Country of OriginCSR Corporate Social Responsibility F&B Food and Beverages
FRGS Fundamental Research Grant Scheme JAKIM Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia KLMF Kuala Lumpur Mus/imah Festival MNF Multinational Firms
SAW Sallahu Alaihi Wasalam SWT Subahana Wa Taala
CHAPTERl INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents an overview of the current study. It explains the research issues (problem statement) and the scope of the study. It also provides the expected contributions and objectives the research intends to achieve. Finally, it highlights the organisation of the thesis.
1.1 Background of study
The American Marketing Association (AMA) 2007 defines a brand as "a name, term, design, symbol, or another feature that identifies the seller's good or services as distinct from those other sellers". A brand may delineate as a firm's' product and preferred trade name (Kotler, 2 0 1 1 ). This definition is similar to that offered by the Oxford Dictionary as "a particular sort or class of goods, as indicated by the trade mark on them" (Bastos & Levy, 2012).
In the marketing literature, a brand plays an important role as an intermediary between firm and consumer. To consumers, a brand ideally provides multiple sensory inducements to enhance their identification with a firm's product. For example, a brand can be visually recognised from its packaging, shape, logo, and tagline. It can also be recognisable via sound, such as by hearing the name on a
radio advertisement or talking with someone who mentions the product. The symbol, logo or trademark indicates a vital sign to consumers in identifying the product features. Hence, the easily identifiable features by consumers towards the product make sense for firms to establish their well-known brand (Aaker, 1996;
Bauer, 1960; Duboff, 1986; Hampf & Lindberg-Repo, 2 0 1 1 ) .
To firms, a brand is perceived as an asset, value, and equity (Bemo ff, 2 0 1 1 ; Deagon, 2002; Farquhar, 1990; Kapferer, 1992; Seetharaman, Nadzir, & Gunalan, 200 I). According to Aaker (1996), a brand refers to the process that involves the formation of the brand in consumers' heart and mind that will influence their attitude and behaviour. For example, if the consumer has a positive attitude towards a brand, they may repeat purchases, which, in tum, will help increase the firms' sales and profits.
The development of a brand can be traced to the ancient and medieval era, the industrial of revolution, and twentieth centuries. Initially, the creation of a product was imprinted as a trademark, symbols, pictorial signs, and posters. Humans and animals were also branded to distinguish their ownership by the use of similar methods. The cattle were branded with pine tar or paint and later with hot irons, slaves were branded to mark ownership, and criminals were branded as a humiliation (McDonough & Egolf, 2003). Later, during the twentieth century, a brand became a "tool of competitiveness" with which firms used to declare "war"
among them (Holt, 2002). For example, Pepsi and Coca Cola monopolised the soft
drink market and declared "the cola wars" since before World War I. They competed and still competing through advertisements and differentiated their product features to win their consumers' heart and mind (Dogiamis &
Vijayashanker, 2009).
Before the 1970s until the 21st century, marketing and brand theories were developed that focus on fulfilling consumers' desire, how to monopolise the market, and improve a firm's performance. The majority of the studies were centred on the western and conventional market. The influence of religion was not considered necessary. Therefore, insufficient studies were carried out on the Muslim consumer and market.
The focus on the Muslim market started in the late 2000s as a result of the growing size of the Muslims' purchasing power and the awareness of Muslims to buy products that are sharia compliance (Kearney, 2007; Ogilvy & Mather, 2010).
According to the Global Islamic Economy 2016/2017, the Dinar Standard estimates of the global Muslim population expenditure on Islamic economy suggested that the global Muslim spending on food and beverages (F&B) to reach $1,173 billion in 2 0 1 5 . This spending is expected to grow to a $ 1,9 1 4 billion market by 2021 and will account for 8.5% of the global expenditure (Thomson Reuters, 2016).
The expected growth in the global halal market consequently has raised a plethora of research, workshop, and published journals on Muslim consumer behaviour
(Adnan, 2013; Sandikci, 2 0 1 1 ) . Studies on Islamic brand has focused on the halal status product, firm's behaviour in developing halal products, Muslim consumer behaviour towards halal products, and a firm's personality (Ahmed & Jan, 2015;
Alserhan, 2010b; Alihodzic 2012; Jumani & Siddiqui, 2012; Temporal 2 0 1 1 ; Wilson, 2 0 1 1; Ozgen & Kurt 2013). These studies have adopted theories of the western and conventional brand. The next section discusses the problem statement on Islamic brand.
1.2 Problem statement
Back in 2007, Islamic brand captivated the attention of marketing scholars. The discussion on Islamic brand studies can be divided into three categories, namely, the definition of Islamic brand, the proposition of model/frameworks of Islamic brand, and factors that influence Muslim consumer attitude towards a brand.
However, the discussions on Islamic brand is limited in representing the Islamic teaching.
The existing definitions of Islamic brand are based on the conventional marketing/brand pivot and social constructionism (Ahmad & Jan, 2015; Alserhan, 2010a; Temporal, 2 0 1 1 ; Yusof & Jusoh, 2013). Alserhan (2010a) and Temporal (2011) defined Islamic brand according to the social reality concept (brand by compliance, brand by consumer, and brand by country of origin). Yusof and Jusof (2013) defined Islamic brand according to the Muslim society's perception towards an Islamic brand product. On the other hand, Ahmed and Jan (2015) grounded
Islamic brand personality on Aaker's definition of brand personality. According to Copinanth (2007), there seems to be no precise definition of what the term Islamic brand means. Such statement was supported by Wilson (2011) who claimed that the definition of an Islamic brand remains elusive.
Besides, the characteristics of an Islamic brand as proposed in the previous model or framework are based on conventional values (i.e. to meet firm performance and fulfil consumer demand). The Islamic brand model and framework studies can be traced in Ahmad and Jan (2015), Alserhan (2010b), Aoun and Tournais (2015), and Wilson (2011). For example, Alserhan (2010b) and Temporal (2011) adapted brand by country of origin as well as brand architecture to evaluate the position of!slamic brand in Muslim or non-Muslim products. The discussion aimed to explore the advantages of multinational firms (MNF) to encounter the current demand for the Muslim market. Wilson (2011) and Aoun and Tournais (2015) proposed Islamic brand by the community. The study was underpinned by the theory of brand community that aimed to understand the Muslim society demand and firm performance.
Later, Alihodzic (2012) constructed Islamic brand identity which was stimulated from the conventional brand identity by Aaker (1996), Kapferer (1992), and Meffert and Bierwirth (2005). His objective was to create a firm's identity based on conventional values to gain trust among Muslim consumers. So, they defined Islamic identity based on tangible factors (e.g., brand logo, name, slogan, and
'·
testimonial) and intangible factors (e.g., brand origin, values, personality, and relationships). Lastly, Ahmad and Jan (2015) proposed Islamic brand personality that was extended from the theory of brand personality developed by Aaker ( 1997).
Aaker offered sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness to make up personality. However, Ahmed and Jan (2015) explored Islamic brand personality based on Muslim characteristics made up of sincerity, moderation, competence, simplicity, trustworthiness and moral characters.
The proposition of a model/framework of Islamic brand inspired Jumani and Siddiqui (2012), and Ozgen and Kurt (2013) to study the factors that influence Muslim consumer perception/attitude towards a brand. Jumani and Siddiqui employed the brand definition adapted from Alserhan (201 Oa) to examine Pakistani consumers' attitudes towards an Islamic brand product. They included product by compliance, country of origin, and Muslim consumer as independent variables.
Later, by using the theory of reasoned action (TRA), Ozgen and Kurt (2013) developed a model oflslamic brand that incorporated Alserhan's (2010b) Islamic brands typology, true Islamic brand, inbound Islamic brand, and halal certificate as dependent variables.
Most of these studies adopted conventional theories such as brand by country of origin (COO), brand personality, relational brand, brand identity, brand communities, (Aaker, 1997; Chematony, 1999; Farquhar, 1990; Fournier, 1998;
Hampf & Lindberg-Repo, 20 1 1; Muniz & O' Guinn, 2001; Peterson & Jolibert,
1995). The research on the so-called Islamic brand model/framework was, however, insufficient to represent Islamic values and thought because they focused on fulfilling a consumer's desire and maximisation of profit by a firm.
Marketers have been criticised for influencing the consumption of a brand in an ill
mannered way devoid of moral values (Adnan, 2013; Ahmad, 2012; Alserhan, 20 I Oa; Alserhan, 20 I Ob; Elliott, 1997). Scholars asserted that marketers form a brand product to create unlimited consumers' desire (Adnan, 2013; Ahmad, 2012;
Pujiyono, 2006). Consumers become obsessed because of the excitement, glamour, and elitism derived from symbolic or luxury brands making them brand conscious, and which ultimately a materialistic society is produced (Ahuvia & Wong, 1995;
Belk, 2001; Holt, 2002; Klien, 2000). However, consumers wish that they are no longer treated as a way to maximise a firm's profit; rather, they want to be seen as humans (Oglivy & Mather, 2010).
As observed by Adnan (2013), most of the Islamic marketing scholars used the accommodative-modification or eclecticism-methodological model to understand Islamic brand. Accommodative refers to "willing to accept", meanwhile modification is defined as "reproduce" (Salleh, 2008). Eclecticism-methodological is defined as "the selection of method" (Salleh, 2008), which indicated that the previous research of Islamic marketing and brand studies is based on modification and adaption from the conventional point of view. This study suggests those approach is inadequate to explain Islamic brand theoretically for several reasons.
Firstly, the conventional brand theory is based on a brand culture which does not reflect the Muslim culture. Secondly, brand theory is premised on maximising a firm's profit and fulfilling consumers' limitless desire. Thirdly, the theory does not fully incorporate Islamic values and principles. Also, most Islamic brand studies were influenced by the post-modernist approach in which philosophical root lies in social constructionism.
The overall purpose of the methodology used was to understand people who are engaged with the Islamic brand and then the researcher interpreted the meaning based on their lives and experiences. Such research method is limited based on the following; firstly, the methodological philosophy argues that reality is socially constructed. Reality is not inclusive of the existence of god, rewards, sins, and punishment; therefore, human Jaws are more supreme than the commencement of God.
Secondly, the conventional method only emphasises aqli (intellectual) method and nazari (observation) as top references of knowledge and rejects the naqli (Quran and Sunnah) proofs. In this regard, the interpretation of meaning and characteristics of Islamic brand from the Islamic perspective cannot be achieved if it is still grounded in the postmodernist approach and social constructionism philosophy.
Therefore, this study aims to bring maslahah (benefit) in the rohaniah (spiritual) and zahiriah (material) aspects to achieve His blessing in the world and hereafter.
"
Based on these limitations, there has been a research call to develop an Islamic brand model. Islamic brand may pose unique features, values and distinctiveness according to the basic sources (Quran and Sunnah) (Alserhan, 20 I Ob; Fatema Bhuiya, & Bhuiyan, 2013; Jumani & Siddiqui, 2012). Alserhan (2010b), Jumani and Siddiqui (2012), and Maamoun (2016) explained that Islamic brand is a set of belief or faith which is in line with Allah's guidance that engages with worship.
Alserhan (20 I Ob) argued that Islamic brand not only stresses on the halal and haram status, it is also involved good deeds because a brand cannot be separated from faith. Fatema et al. (2013) suggested the inclusion of sharia compliance and Islamic ethics (akh/ak) in Islamic brand to respond to the lack of morality in products promoted by marketers. Besides, Maamoun (2016) illustrated that Islamic brands need to be based on Islamic principles to attract Muslim consumers. Hence, the inclusion of Islamic core principles, i.e. aqidah, sharia, and akhlak is needed to develop the meaning and characteristics of an Islamic brand.
Given the research call for the development of an Islamic brand, the present research aims to investigate Islamic brand attire on a firm's practices. As contended by Alserhan (2010b), McKenna (2007), Power and Abdullah (2009), Muslim consumers require brands that speak to them. The brands are not only limited to the food industry, but also finance, banking, insurance, real estate, attire, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic and logistic. Henceforth, this study focused on Islamic attire as a special reference to develop the Islamic brand model.
As accordance to Thomson Reuters (2016), Muslim consumers' spending on attire and footwear has increased and is expected to reach UDS368 billion by 2021.
Driven by the tremendous interest in modest clothing, Islamic fashion shows are booming all over the globe. In South East Asia, the Malaysia Islamic Fashion Festival is held on a national scale every year (Thomson Reuters, 2016). In fact, with a USD200+ billion consumer market, it is not surprising that the main focus of today's global fashion brand is based on modest clothing. There is an opportunity for developing brands with Islam-inspired modesty and a global appeal. Building an Islamic brand is essential for firms since the Muslim market exists everywhere from Indonesia to the United States (Thomson, 2016).
Malaysia has become the role model to other countries in representing a Muslim attire identity based on the Islamic conjunction (Thomson, 2016). The development of Islamic brand attire in Malaysia is drastically increased and has caught consumers' attention via events such as the KL Muslimah Fashion Festival and the Mood Republic Festival. These events have promoted about hundred Islamic brand attires.
However, there is a limitation in the current Muslim fashion which is not consistent with the Islamic guideline and morality. According to Lee ( 1985), the use of modem clothing by men and women shows that the transmission of culture from outside is widespread in the society so that a large part of them ignores the Islamic ethical clothing specified in the local culture and Islamic teaching.
In fact, Nordin, Noor, and Ghazali (2016) noticed that the current phenomenon of Muslimah fashion is based on tabbaruj. Tabbaruj means actions that expose body parts, beauties, and ornaments in an excessive manner to the public which is against the Islamic conjunction. This phenomenon also indicates that firms take this advantage to promote their product attire to fulfil consumer satisfaction by disregarding the Islamic values (Alaui, 2016 Mac 16; Kazim, 2016 April 6; Omar, 2009 September 3; Rosli & Zamlus, 2016, April 4). The Mufti Pulau Pinang, Dato' Dr Wan Salim Wan Mohd Noor, has indeed reminded designers to produce attire with sharia features (Rosli & Zamlus, 2016 April 4).
Based on the above discussion, aqidah, sharia, and akhlak emerge as essential principles that need to be included when discussing Islamic brand. Since there is no clear definition, characteristics, and understanding of Islamic brand, therefore, this research aimed at responding to the research call by exploring Islamic brand by using an Islamic research approach ( epistemology and ontology from the Islamic perspective) and the core Islamic principles namely aqidah, sharia, and akhlak.
The present research also investigated current practice of Islamic brand in attire industry to see whether it complies with Islamic brand core principles or otherwise.
By using this approach, the Islamic brand attire consistent with Islamic values and focuses on the short-term (world life) as well as long term (hereafter) benefits will be materialized.
1.3 Research questions
Based on the above research problems, this research proposed the following research questions:
I . What is the meaning of Islamic brand?
2. What are the characteristics oflslamic brand?
a. the characteristics of aqidah in Islamic brand?
b. the characteristics of sharia in Islamic brand?
c. the characteristics of akhlak in Islamic brand?
3. How do these characteristics shape the Islamic brand attire?
4. How do firms currently practise in the Islamic brand attire industry?
1.4 Research objectives
The general purpose of the present study is to present a coherent, inclusive and pluralistic approach to Islamic brand. Specifically, the present study aims to:
I. explore the meaning oflslamic brand.
2. explore the characteristics of Islamic brand.
a. the characteristics of aqidah in Islamic brand.
b. the characteristics of sharia in Islamic brand.
c. the characteristics of akh/ak in Islamic brand.
3. identify the characteristics of Islamic principles in shaping the Islamic brand attire.
4. investigate firms' current practices in the Islamic brand attire industry.
1.5 Contributions of the study
This research is contributed in terms of theoretical, methodological and practical implication. From the theoretical standpoint, the present research is contributed to add:
I . new knowledge of Islamic principles of aqidah, sharia and akhlak in brand literature.
2. new knowledge of the definition oflslamic brand.
3. new knowledge of the characteristics oflslamic brand.
4. new knowledge of the interaction between the three core Islamic principles and Islamic brand attire.
Meanwhile, from the methodological perspective, the present research is contributed to add:
1. new methodology ( epistemology and ontology from the Islamic perspective) in constructing the meaning and principles oflslamic brand.
2. new methodology by applying the method of istidlal in the thematic data analysis.
From the practical implication, this study is potentially useful for policymakers. In the I Ith Malaysia Plan, Malaysia aims to become a global brand and market leader in Islamic products and services by adopting and developing strategies based on Islamic principles and values to penetrate the global market. To do this, the government has to collaborate with related agencies. (Economic Planning Unit,
2016). The findings of this study can, therefore, be used to guide policymakers to develop an Islamic brand.
Finally, this study aims to educate and improve Muslim and non-Muslim firms' behaviour to produce Islamic brands that integrate the Islamic principles. Muslim firms can use the findings of this study to strengthen the Islamic brand equity.
Indirectly, the firms can educate Muslim consumers about the correct behaviour when buying products in line with Islamic values and expectations.
1.6 Scope and limitation of the study
This study developed Islamic brand model based on Islamic sources i.e. Quran and Sunnah that focused mainly on the principles of aqidah, sharia and akhlak. These principles are then used to choose the epistemology and ontology behind this research. These principles are according to the sources of Quran and Sunnab in order to understand meaning and characteristics of Islamic brand itself. Hence, the present study focused its exploration on brand from the Islamic perspective based on these principles.
A qualitative approach such as content analysis from turath books, observation, and interviews were employed. By using this approach, the present study able to identify how these principles can be used to develop an Islamic brand model with special reference to Islamic attire. This study limit it's focused on interviews with Islamic experts, and firms in Malaysia. The input from the interviews is based on
the culture or urf' and their experiences. Therefore, caution need to be used when interpreting the findings as it may influenced by Malaysian perspective.
The present research develops an Islamic brand model by focusing on Islamic attire.
The present study emphasize the dress code of Islamic attire from two contexts: the dress code within the mahram and outside the mahram. Within the mahram (father, husband, mother, sister and brother), the dress of a woman should cover the awrah, i.e. the entire body except that is usually exposed such as face, hair, neck, forearms, and feet. For a man, the dress covers the awrah from the centre until his knee. The second dress code for outside the mahram for a woman covers the awrah, i.e. the whole body except her face and both palms. Meanwhile, for man, the awrah is similar to that within the mahram. This study focused on the dress code of outside mahram produced by Muslim and non-Muslim marketers and designers.
I. 7 Organization of chapters
This thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter One contains an introduction to the topic of interest, description, and discussion of the problem, research questions, objectives, scope, and contributions of the study. Chapter Two and Chapter Three present extensive literature on the topic under investigation. Chapter Two specifically highlights relevant theories, studies and definitions of brand from the conventional perspective. Chapter Three offers Islamic brand definitions, frameworks, and models. A gap in the coverage of the brand issue is identified and arguments concerning brand theories from the Islamic thought are provided. Then,
the present research proposes an Islamic brand that is integrated with Islamic principles (aqidah, sharia, and akhlak).
Meanwhile, Chapter Four deals with the methodology employed by the present study. In doing so, it discnsses the qualitative method employed and its suitability and relevance to the nature of the research. Chapter Five presents data analysis and its findings. Chapter Six offers a discussion on Islamic brand ( definition, characteristics, and current practices) to answer the research questions and objectives of the study. The discussion is within the scope of the previous literature and experts' view oflslamic brand. Also, the discussion revolves around the current practices in Islamic brand attire. Finally, Chapter Seven presents the conclusion, contributions, and recommendations for future research.
I·,,
CHAPTER2
LITERATURE REVIEW: THEORIES AND DEFINITIONS OF BRAND FROM THE CONVENTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
2.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the conventional theories and definitions of a brand. The main aim of this chapter is to understand the current mainstream of a brand to see the gaps in the current research. The conventional history of a brand can be traced back to the ancient and medieval era, the industrial of revolution and the World War I. As such, the development of conventional brand theories can be divided into two phases: (a) before the 1970s until 1980s and (b) during 1990s until the 21'' century.
The present research also highlights previous literature on the conventional definition of a brand from marketing scholars' view. Chematony and Riley (1998) categorised a brand into 12 themes. Maurya and Mishra (2012) later re-classified the 1 2 themes into three perspectives: firms' perspective, consumers' perspective, and both. Then, the advantages and limitations of the theories and definitions are reviewed before the researcher identifies the gaps in the past literature. To assess the limitations of previous research, Islamic thoughts based on with Quran and Sunnah were employed.
2.1 History of brand
The root of brand development can be traced since the ancient and medieval era and the industrial of revolution. Table 2.1 describes the role of a brand before and during the 20111 century. During the ancient time of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, merchants used pictorial signs (symbols and pictures) and painted their storefronts.
In the 13th century (medieval era), handbills were distributed as advertisements based on the merchant's type of business to attract consumers' attention. Then, during the Sung Dynasty (960-1279), the Chinese created the early forms of brand identification by printing wrappers, banners, painted pictures, and signboards as well as a printed advertisement (McDonough & Egolf, 2003). In 1625 in England, a brand was established as a trademark and stamp by the government, which was the first copyright laws. It was also to ensure the distinction and identification of services and goods (McDonough & Egolf, 2003).
At the beginning of the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution caused a significant impact on the future of advertisement and brand (McDonough & Egolf, 2003). The capitalist economic idea in that era advocated the people to monopolise in business and reminded them to trademark their goods to prevent copyright infringement and so on (Dogiamis & Vijayashanker, 2009). Before the civil war (1861-1865), firms realised the potential to promote their "brand names" through an attractive packaging like labels, wrappers, and boxes (Dogiamis & Vijayashanker, 2009). The differentiation of identity in the products enabled consumers to appraise their value.
A brand, therefore, created usefulness and turned the goods into something more extremely profitable and fulfilled the consumer's desire (Naomi, 2000; Holt, 2002).
Table 2.1
History of brand Period
Ancient of Egypt, Greece, Rome Medieval era (I 3'h Century)
Sung Dynasty (960-1279)
The Industrial Revolution (1700s)
Author and year
• McDonough and Egolf (2003)
• McDonough and Egolf (2003)
• McDonough and Egolf (2003)
• McDonough and Egolf (2003)
• Dogiamis and Vijayashanker (2009)
Role of brand
• Pictorial sign
• Painted in front of stores
• Sign or symbol for the merchant's type of business
• Handbill were distributed as advertisement.
• A sword shape sign as a sword forger for easy recognize by consumer.
• Early forms of brand identification for advertisement
• Printing wrappers, banners, painted pictures, and signboard
• The capitalist economic involvement
• Brand established as a trademark and stamp by the government.
• England (1625), first copyright laws to ensure the distinction and identification of services and goods.
Before Civil wars • Klien (2000) ( 1861-1865) • McDonough and
Egolf (2003)
• Dogiamis and Vijayashanker (2009)
• Promote firms' "brand names" through an attractive packaging;
• Label
• Wrappers
• Boxes During twentieth
(20'") century
• Holt (2002)
• Dogiamis and Vijayashanker (2009)
• "Tools of competitiveness"
• Declared "war"
• Compete through the advertisement and differentiate product features
In the 201h century, a brand became a "tool of competitiveness" between firms that declared "war" among them (Holt, 2002). For example, Pepsi and Coca Cola
War I. They compete through advertisements and differentiate their product features to win consumers' heart and mind (Dogiamis & Vijayashanker, 2009).
Firms develop many marketing and brand strategies (such as marketing mix, lifestyle and others) to raise revenue. To help understand firms' behaviour, many theories of marketing have been developed.
2.2 The development of conventional brand theories
The development of conventional brand theories has two phases: (a) initial phase of brand development before the 1970s until 1980s and (b) during the 1990s until the 2 1 " century.
2.2.J Initial Phase of Brand Development before the 1970s until 1980s
Before the 1970s, brand theories were still at the initial stage. Many scholars focused developing marketing theories on market segmentation, store personality lifestyle, marketing mix, brand loyalty, social marketing, relationship marketing, and positioning (Smith, 1956; Lazer, 1963). Table 2.2 describes the initial development of brand before the 1970s until 1980s.
A study carried out by Marquardt, Makens, and Larzelere (1956) found that 75%
of consumers preferred a well-known brand product as their favourites. This result gave a decent beginning in the evolution of brand theories. The concept of segmentation was initially developed by Smith (1956). The author looked at a
heterogeneous market based on consumers' background, status, and preferences in a full market demand.
Then, Yankelovich (1964) developed the segmentation theory. He suggested new variables to be included, namely aesthetic preferences, buying behaviour, motive, consumer patterns, and product value. In 1958, Martineau established the theoretical foundation of a firm's store personality. The personality of a store involved a good brand image as an important key in creating the desire of personality among consumers (Martineau, 1958).
The theory was premised on the assumption that consumers will choose the outstanding brand store that represents their personality that could satisfy their preference. The marketing lifestyle concept was based on a consumer's lifestyle and preferences in product creation. The marketing lifestyle was a successful strategy during the wars and economic depression which produced a positive outcome to firms (Lazer, 1963).
Then, Borden (1964) introduced a well-known term namely the 4Ps (Price, Product, Promotion, and Place) concept which was also recognised as the marketing mix.
This concept became the key component of a brand product that symbolised a marketing tool for firms to achieve their goal (Keller & Kotler 2006). On the same year, Cunningham ( 1965) proposed brand loyalty.
The author discovered that more than 90% of consumers were influenced by household brand loyalty in purchasing a product. Therefore, many firms invested a significant amount of money on building brand loyalty.
Table 2.2
The initial phase of brand development before 1970s until 1980s
Author and Year Concept//Theory Explanation
• Marquardt, Makens, Establishment the • 75% of the consumer preferred a and Larzelere, (1956) importance of brand well-known brand product as their
favourite
- e---- - - ---
• Smith(l956) Market segmentation • Education
• Yankelovich (1964) • Income
• Demographic
• Preferences
• Buying behaviour
• Value of product
• Martineau (1958) Store personality • Brand image that able to attract the consumer.
• Lazer(1963) Marketing Lifestyle • Positive outcome to the firm even during depression economic and war.
• Borden (1964) Marketing Mix; • Coined the term of brand that related Price, Product, Place, to the product purchases.
Promotion (4Ps).
• Cunnigham (1965) Brand Loyalty • Consumer brand loyalty in household product.
• Kotler and Zaltman Social marketing • Create relationship between
-
( 1 9 7 1 ) consumer and firm.
- - - f-
• Ries and Trout Positioning • Positioning of product in term of
( 1981) target market, product name, price
strategy and innovation
• Gronroos (1989) Relationship • Maintain, establish and develop the
• Gammeson ( 1993) marketing relationship with the consumer.
• Build the relationship in a manner that profits for both parties
During the 1970s, many marketing theories were developed, such as social marketing, relationship marketing, and positioning marketing (Gronroos 1989;
Kotler & Zaltman, 1 9 7 1, Ries & Trout, 1981 ). From these theories, the relationship between a firm and conswners was better understood. The objectives were, firstly, to establish, develop and maintain a relationship with consumers, and, secondly, develop product positioning (target market, product name, price strategy and innovation) that are beneficial for both parties (Gummesson, 1993).
These theories are currently used to understand brand positioning and brand as a relationship. During this period, marketing theories were much about strategies, but not much was understood about the meaning of a brand. Also, during this period, Islamic marketing was almost not existent. However, marketing theories drew inspiration to develop brand theories in the 1990s until the 21" century (Moore &
Reid, 2008). Brands were seen as having a commercial value and used to differentiate a firm's product. Furthermore, brands became a story-telling tool to create a meaningful value of products to attract consumers (Roper & Parker, 2006).
2.2.2 During the 1990s until 21" century
In the 1990s, the development of a conventional brand became an important research area within the entire discipline of conventional marketing (Moore &
Ried, 2008). It motivated subsequent brand theories to develop new knowledge of brand from a firm's perspective, conswner's perspective, and both.
' '
From the firm's perspective, brand theories talk about brand equity, brand identity, brand by country of origin, and a subculture of brand consumption corporate social responsibility (CSR). Meanwhile, from the consumer's perspective, brand personality and brand communities emerged. Finally, relational brand and brand identity hexagon represent both perspectives.
a) Brand theories from firm's perspective
From the firm's perspective, brand equity initial was coined in the early 1990s and became one of the most researched areas in the field of marketing (Brodie, Glynn,
& Van Dunne, 2002). The field of research focused on financial perspectives on
how brand value affects firms' performance in the market (Aaker, 1996; Farquhar, 1990; Keller, 1993; Motameni & Shahrokhi, 1998; Simon & Sullivan, 1993;
Shocker, Srivastava, Reukert & Robert, 1994). Also, previous studies developed Country of Origin (COO) in branding strategy (Peterson & Jolibert, 1995) as a result of increasing competition from international brands. The purpose was to establish an attractive brand based on the country and popularity of firm. Later in the 1990s, Agrawal and Kamakura (1999) highlighted the advantages in applying COO as a brand strategy when the products are dependent on a firm's brand image, such as wine, perfumes and others. Table 2.3 explains brand theories from the firm's perspective.
Chernatony (1999) also introduced brand identity that conceptualises a firm's value in terms of culture and vision. The culture and vision are concerned with
positioning, personality, and relationship to reflect stakeholders, employees' performance, and the desired self-image of the firm. Finally, a firm that possesses perceived responsibility would be able to use ethicality as one of the brand benefits, allowing consumers to feel satisfied due to the linkage of the responsible behaviour of the brand to the society (Kapferer, 2008).
Table 2.3
Explanation Concept/ffheory
Author and Year
Conventional brand theories from firm's perspective
I
• Farquhar (1990)
• Aaker ( 1996)
• Motameni and Shahrokhi (I 998)
• Keller ( 1993)
• Simon and Sullivan (1993)
• Shocker, Srivastava, Reukert and Robert ( 1994)
• Brodie, Glynn, and Van Durme, (2002)
Brand equity
