THE RELATIONSHIP OF ACCULTURATION WITH PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-ESTEEM OF THAI MUSLIM STUDENTS IN

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF ACCULTURATION WITH PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-ESTEEM OF THAI MUSLIM STUDENTS IN

MALAYSIAN UNIVERSITIES

BY

NAJIHAH AKEB URAI

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

SEPTEMBER 2004

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF ACCULTURATION WITH PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-ESTEEM OF THAI MUSLIM STUDENTS

IN MALAYSIAN UNIVERSITIES

BY

NAJIHAH AKEB URAI

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER IN HUMAN SCIENCES IN CLINICAL AND COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY

KULLIYYAH OF ISLAMIC REVEALED KNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN SCIENCES, INTERNATIONAL

ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

SEPTEMBER 2004

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ABSTRACT

This research attempts to investigate the relationship of acculturation with psychosocial adjustment, self-efficacy and self-esteem of Thai Muslim students in Malaysian universities. The sample consisted of 168 Thai students studying in HUM and UUM. A special measure Thai Acculturation in Malaysia Scale was developed for this study because no suitable measure of acculturation was available for this group. It was found to be moderately reliable with some indications that it has validity for this group. Other measures used in this study were: the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZSDS), the Sociocultural Adjustment Measure (SCAM), the Generalized Self- Efficacy (GSE) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). The study postulated:

(1) students who are acculturated will be more adjusted compared to students who are not acculturated; (2) students who are proficient in the Malay language will be more adjusted compared to those who are less proficient in the language; (3) students with high self-efficacy will be more adjusted compared to students with low self-efficacy;

(4) students with high self-efficacy and self-esteem would be more acculturated compared to students with low self-efficacy and self-esteem; (5) students who have stayed longer in the host country would be more acculturated compared to those who are new to the country; (6) male students will be more acculturated compared to female students; (7) Thai students studying in UUM would be more acculturated compared to those studying in IIUM. Four way ANOVAs indicated that students with high sociocultural adjustment were more acculturated, whereas students with different levels of psychological adjustment (depression) did not differ in acculturation.

Additionally, Pearson Product Moment Correlation indicated a significant positive relationship between sociocultural adjustment and acculturation. The results revealed that students with different levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem did not differ in acculturation. Two way ANOVAs indicated that students with high Malay proficiency have better sociocultural adjustment but did not differ in psychological adjustment compared to those with low and moderate levels of Malay proficiency. Four way ANOVAs indicated that students who stayed longer in the host country (Malaysia) were more acculturated. No differences were found between male and female students in terms of acculturation. Two way ANOVAs indicated that students with high self- efficacy showed better psychosocial adjustment. Additionally, correlation findings showed a significant negative relationship between psychological adjustment and self- efficacy while sociocultural adjustment was found to have a positive relationship with self-efficacy. It was also found that the Thai students studying in UUM were more acculturated as compared to IIUM students.

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APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master in Human Sciences in Psychology.

Zafar Afaq Ansari Supervisor

Date:

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master in Human Sciences in Psychology.

Muhammad Abdul Rashid Examiner

Date:

This thesis was submitted to the Department of Psychology and is accepted as partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master in Human Sciences in Psychology.

Hariyati Shahrima Abdul Majid Head, Department of Psychology Date:

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master in Human Sciences in Psychology.

Mohamad @ Md. Som Sujimon Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences Date:

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references and a bibliography is appended.

Name: Najihah Akeb Urai

Signature:...Date:...

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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

The relationship of acculturation with psychosocial adjustment, self-efficacy and self- esteem of Thai Muslim students in Malaysian universities.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holder expect as provided below:

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be only used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Najihah Akeb Urai

Signature:... Date:...

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This thesis is dedicated with admiration and affection to my mother

Faridah Akeb Urai and family members, namely; Alawiyah Akeb Urai, Fadila Akeb Urai, Solahudin Akeb Urai and Jong Sawat Song Muang

My dedication also goes to my husband Raja Dzulkarnain Raja Zainal Abidin and my son Raja Muhammad Danial Hakimi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks be to Almighty Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala for Bestowing strength and endurance in completing this research successfully.

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to my supervisor, Professor Dr. Zafar Afaq Ansari, for his support, guidance and assistance.

My special thanks also go to Associate Professor Dr. Muhammad Abdul Rashid and Mr. Aree Mamat for their cooperation and guidance and to my friends particularly Hawa Rahmat, Azizah Othman, Nora M. K. El-Fiky, Usman Ningoh, Nipon Soh- Heng, Isma-ae Wicha, Mardiah Kadir, Hakam Hengpiya, Mimi Iznita Mohamed Iqbal and Nor Diana Mohd. Mahudin for their unconditional assistance.

Most of all, my deepest gratitude to my beloved family members, Faridah Akeb Urai, Alawiyah Akeb Urai, Fadila Akeb Urai, Solahudin Akeb Urai and Jong Sawat Song Muang and my husband Raja Dzulkarnain Raja Zainal Abidin, for their emotional support, encouragement, understanding and for being there with me through the endeavor of writing this research. To my son Hakimi, my deepest apology for not having enough time to spend with you during the period of writing this research.

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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE...8

Acculturation... 8

Adjustment...10

Psychological Adjustment...11

Sociocultural Adjustment ...11

Self Efficacy... 12

Self Esteem ... 13

Relationship between Acculturation and Adjustment ...14

Relationship between Acculturation and Depression ... 15

Relationship between Acculturation and Sociocultural Adjustment ... 17

Relationship of Self Efficacy with Acculturation and Adjustment ...17

Relationship between Acculturation and Self Esteem ...18

Relationship between Acculturation and Gender ... 20

Relationship between Language and Adjustment...21

Relationship between Acculturation and Length of Stay... 22

Relationship between Acculturation and Cultural Distance... 23

Islamic Perspective on Acculturation... 24

The Concept of Asabiyyah ... 25

Significance of the Study...28

Definition of Terms ... 29

Acculturation... 29

Integration... 29

Adjustment...29

Self Efficacy... 30

Self Esteem... 30

Language ... 30

Cultural Distance and Familiarity ...31

Depression... 31

Sociocultural Difficulties ... 31

Hypothesis of the Study...31

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY...33

Sample... 33

Participants...33

Measures ... 35

Measurement of Acculturation... 36

Measurement of Adjustment ...38

Psychological Adjustment...39

Sociocultural Adjustment ... 40

Measurement of Self-Efficacy...41

Measurement of Self-Esteem ...41

Procedures... 42

Data Analysis...43

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...45

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION...63

Conclusion and Recommendations ... 73

Limitations of the Study... 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY... 77

Appendix A: Demographic Questionnaire ...84

Appendix B: Thai Acculturation in Malaysia Scale (TAMS) ... 86

Appendix C: Zung Self Rating Depression Scale (ZSDS) ...87

Appendix D: Generalized Self Efficacy (GSE)...88

Appendix E: Sociocultural Adjustment Measure (SCAM) ...89

Appendix F: Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSES) ... 90

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

1 Thai Students Enrolment for the Academic Year 2002/2003... 4 2 Total Foreign and Thai Students Population at HUM (2000-2003) .. 5 3 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ... 35 4 Correlation Coefficients of Thai Acculturation in Malaysia Scale

(TAMS) and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD) .... 38 5 The mean, standard deviation and alpha coefficients of variables .... 47

6 A four ways between subjects ANOVA on TAMS for

psychological variables ... 50 7 The mean and standard deviation of GSE and SCAM on TAMS

scores... 50 8 The mean and standard deviation of GSE, ZSDS and high level of

RSES on TAMS scores... 50 9 The mean and standard deviation of GSE, ZSDS and low level of

RSES on TAMS scores... 51 10 Correlation coefficient matrix of the variables ... 51 11 A four ways between subjects ANOVA on Thai acculturation in

Malaysia Scale (TAMS) for demographic variables ... 54 12 The mean and standard deviation of gender and period of stay in

Malaysia on TAMS scores ... 54 13 The mean and standard deviation of Malay proficiency and period

of stay in Malaysia for male on TAMS scores... 55 14 The mean and standard deviation of Malay proficiency and period

of stay in Malaysia for female on TAMS scores... 55 15 The mean and standard deviation of Malay proficiency and gender

on TAMS scores... 55 16 The mean and standard deviation of Malay proficiency and

marital status on TAMS scores ... 55 17 A four way between subjects ANOVA on TAMS for demographic

variables ... 58

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18 The mean and standard deviation of respondent's institution and father's educational level on TAMS scores ... 58 19 The mean and standard deviation of age and father's educational

level on TAMS scores... 58 20 The mean and standard deviation of age and mother's educational

level and institution on TAMS scores ... 59 21 The mean and standard deviation of mother's educational level

and father's educational level on TAMS scores ... 59 22 A two ways between subjects ANOVA on the Zung Self Rating

Depression Scale (ZSDS) for GSE and Malay proficiency... 60 23 The mean and standard deviation of ZSDS scores in relation to

self-efficacy and Malay proficiency... 60 24 A two ways between subjects ANOVA on sociocultural

adjustment measure (SCAM) for GSE and Malay proficiency ... 61 25 The mean, standard deviation of SCAM in relation to self-efficacy

and Malay proficiency... 62

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Long-term cross-cultural encounters often involve a process of newcomers' acculturation to a different society. Immigrants and sojourners such as students, tourists and expatriate workers are often faced with a conflict between the desire to preserve their former identities and the wish to develop a new identity more consistent with the expectations and modes of behavior of host nationals (Berry, Segall & Kagitcibasi, 1997; Bochner, 1982). This attitude of maintaining one's culture while adopting the host culture is called integration. A question one could ask at this point is: can this assumption be applied to Thai students living in Malaysia considering that there is no great disparity between Malaysia and the Southern Thailand in terms of culture?

Therefore, living in a community where the native language is accepted and the ethnic culture of the sojourners is practiced could be helpful in the adjustment process.

Acculturation refers to the manner in which individuals negotiate two or more cultures, where one culture is dominant while the other culture is perceived to have less cultural value (Berry, 1995). Acculturation is also defined as culture change, which results from continuous, first-hand contact between two distinct cultural groups (Mishra, Sinha & Berry, 1996). The sojourners can use a number of approaches when they come into contact with the host culture. These approaches include: (a) assimilation, which is a process of relinquishing one's cultural identity and adopting the dominant culture. It can occur by absorbing a non-dominant group into the dominant group; (b) integration which implies the maintenance of the culture of the

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acculturating group as well as adopting the culture of the dominating group; (c) separation which occurs when there are no positive relations with the dominant culture. In this case the non-dominant group is pushed to maintain its old cultural identity without interacting with the dominant culture; (d) marginalization which occurs when the acculturating group loses cultural and psychological contact with both the traditional culture and that of the dominant culture (Berry, Kim, Power, Young & Bujali, 1989). Ward and Kennedy (1994) differentiated between the culture of origin, which is referred to as the national culture, and the culture of contact, which is referred to as the host culture. On the contrary, living in a new culture leads to acculturation conceived as culture change and the subsequent stresses of cross-cultural transition called "acculturative stress" by Berry (1970) or "culture shock" by Oberg (1960) and many other researchers. Acculturation, therefore, refers to changes in an individual whose cultural group is experiencing acculturation. According to the literature, changes that occur include physical, biological, economic, political and social and psychological changes (Neto, 2002). Considering the broad area in which changes occur, this study will only focus on the social and psychological changes.

Any study of the relationships between acculturation and adjustment must focus on the sojourner's psychological and social states. Research has demonstrated that encountering new cultures is often associated with negative emotional reactions, creating feelings of helplessness, anxiety, and an inability to negotiate roles and tasks in the new environment. Psychological symptoms are prevalent in a maladjusted sojourner and symptoms include mood disturbance, depression and other symptoms.

The reactions resulted from the confrontation between the acquired norms, customs, values of both the material and nonmaterial of the culture of origin, and the new ones

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in the dominant culture, which require adjustment.

History of Thai-Malaysian Relations

The ethnic division between the Thai Buddhists and the Malay Muslims is not always clear cut. In both countries, people who speak Malay as a first language are expected to be, and generally are, Muslims while people who speak Thai as a first language are expected to be, and generally are, Buddhists. However, in some areas of the west coast of peninsular Malaysia there are ethnic Thai, who after moving southward, embraced Islam but continue to speak Thai as a first language. In present day Southern Thailand there are ethnic communities who speak Thai in place of Malay but remain Muslims (Winzeler, 1985).

Language would also be a plausible line of evidence in determining the origins of Thais who migrated to Kelantan. Nearly all settlements in Malaysia in the late 1960s

are linked to a cluster of others in Narathiwat Province. Probably all these villages are derived from an original enclave established deep in Malay territory long ago to form a district dialect - Tak Bai, which is different from all Thai dialects used in other Thai provinces today. Earlier observers also provide theories on such origins. Graham

(1908) noted two unidentified villages that can be traced to Thai invasions in the

1840's. However, such military actions do not account for the bulk of Thai settlements in Malaysia.

By the late ₁₉^th century, Thailand had long claimed ownership over Kelantan, Trengganu and Kedah except for Pattani, which it had split into seven smaller states called Jet Huamuang. Other than that, Thailand had little involvement in the Malay community,

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even the ones that remained under its overlordship (Suwannathat-Dian, 1988).

However, in 1909, Thailand gave up the rights to all northern Malay states (except Pattani, which remains part of Thailand till today) to Great Britain. Since then, a precise border was declared between Kelantan along with the other states and Thailand. A census in 1911 showed a sharp decline in the number of Thais in Kelantan (approximately 5000 people from nearly 15000) most likely resulting from the declaration of the Thai-Malaysia border. The majority Malay communities in Narathiwat, Pattani and Yala continue to speak Malay with a dialect similar to Kelantanese Malay, using Jawi as the mode of written communication. This similarity is one of the major factors that draw Muslim Thai students to Malaysian universities.

Statistical trends show that the enrolment of Thai students in public institutions of higher learning has increased in recent years. As shown in Tablel, there are about 442 Thai students in HUM and other institutions of higher learning in Malaysia for the academic year 2002/2003 alone.

Table 1: Thai students enrolment for the academic year 2002/2003

No Names of institutions Number of students

1 Universiti Sains Malyasia (USM) 31*

2 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) 2*

3 Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) 17*

4 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) 2*

5 Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) 140*

6 Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM) 212**

7 Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) 1*

8 Universiti Perguruan Sultan Idris (UPSI) 8*

9 Kolej Universiti Malaysia (KUIM) 2*

10 Universiti Malaya (UM) 0*

11 Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) 0*

Total 442

Sources: .Iabatan Pendidikan Tinggi, Kementerian Pedidikan Malaysia (2003).

** Records Management Unit, Admissions and Records Division, IIUMAs of March 2003

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Table 2: Total foreign and Thai students population at IIUM (2000-2003)

Student 2000 2001 2002 3/2003 Increase %

(2002/2003)

Foreign 1442 1589 1850 1943 34.70

Thai - undergraduate female 46 52 68 76 65.21

Thai - undergraduate male 47 52 58 51 8.51

Thai - postgraduate female 8 28 38 41 412.50

Thai - postgraduate male 7 17 30 44 528.57

Total 108 149 171 212 9.63

Source * Records Management Division Academic Affairs Division, International Islamic University Malaysia, Gombak.

According to Table 2, from 2000 to 2003, foreign students recorded an increase of 34.74% in HUM. Specifically, Thai students showed an increase of 9.63% during the same period. Thai male students showed the highest incremental figure (528.57%) but Thai female undergraduates are the most populous segment of all Thai students, constituting 35.85% of the IIUM Thai student population. Personal contact with Thai students has yielded the following observations about the similarities and differences between Thai Muslims and Malaysians.

Similarities and Differences

Thais are perceived to have excellent cultural compatibility with Malaysians as they eat the same food (rice as the main dish), and live in the same tropical climates, wear similar clothing and celebrate similar festivities. However, despite these striking similarities, a more detailed look reveals some striking cultural differences. These include the educational system and the system of government, among others, that may trigger difficulties for Thai students in Malaysia. For instance, Thais live in a monocentric (one dominant culture) society, and speak Thai and/or the Pattani language, which is approximately similar to Kelantanese Malay but few Thai students are proficient in Bahasa Malaysia before coming to Malaysia. The implications of

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such differences suggest that the cultural transition made by Thai students into the Malaysian culture may be difficult and involve significant adjustments in their new cultural environment because Malaysia is culturally different.

Statement of the Problem

The study focused on the acculturation, adjustment, self-efficacy and self- esteem of Thai Muslim students in Malaysian universities. In view of the non-availability of a measure of acculturation, a suitable instrument to measure acculturation of Thais in Malaysia was developed. The psychological and sociocultural aspects of adjustment including self-efficacy and self-esteem were investigated to see how they are related to acculturation. The research also analyzed demographic characteristics that may influence acculturation in Malaysia.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this research was to investigate the relationship of acculturation with psychosocial adjustment, self-efficacy and self-esteem of Thai Muslim students in Malaysian universities. A suitable instrument to measure acculturation of Thais in Malaysia was developed due to the lack of an instrument for such purpose. It also aimed at exploring the contributions of psychosocial adjustment, self-efficacy and self esteem on acculturation. The research also identified demographic factors that may influence Thai Muslim students' acculturation.

The specific objectives of the research are as follows:

1. To develop a measure of acculturation of Thais in Malaysia.

2. To determine the relationship between acculturation and adjustment.

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3. To determine the influence of Malay language proficiency on Thai Muslim students' adjustment.

4. To explore the demographic characteristics that may uniquely influence the acculturation of Muslim Thai students in Malaysia.

5. To determine the relationship of self-efficacy with adjustment and acculturation.

6. To determine the relationship between acculturation and self-esteem.

7. To see if there is a difference in the acculturation level of students of Thai students in UUM and those in IIUM.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Acculturation

Long-term cross-cultural encounters often involve a process of newcomers' acculturation to a different society. Immigrants and sojourners are often faced with a conflict between the desire to preserve their former identities and the wish to develop a "new" identity more consistent with the expectations and modes of behavior of host nationals. Immigration, therefore, is a stressful process for uprooted people adjusting to a new society (Kim, 1997; Murphy, 1977). Different cultural norms and social conditions may pose problems for immigrants who lack crucial information about the new society. Acculturation has been defined as "the process of cultural change and adaptation that occurs when individuals with different cultures come into contact"

(Gibson, 2001).

According to Berry (1980), psychological acculturation describes the ways in which individuals undergoing cultural transitions incorporate the two cultures in their lives.

Berry, Kim, Power, Young, and Bujali ₍₁₉₈₉₎ conducted a comprehensive examination of this issue. In their model, migrants are faced with two major questions:

(a) whether to maintain their cultural identity and (b) whether to develop closer relations with members of the host society and adopt some of their values and norms of behavior. Positive or negative answers to the preceding questions would result in four basic acculturation strategies: (a) assimilation, abandoning a great part of the old identity and adopting a new lifestyle; (b) separation, a wish to retain the previous cultural identity and refrain from close interaction with the new culture; (c)

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integration, a balance between maintaining the original identity and interacting with the new culture and adopting some of its ways, and (d) marginalization, a lack of interest or ability either to retain previous identity or to develop a new one.

Acculturative styles adopted by individuals can be then seen as ways of coping with the cultural transition. Berry (1999) stated that an encounter with a new culture tends to be associated with ascending phases of acculturating stress. When this stress reaches a level of crisis, an individual is likely to choose among the four strategies of acculturation. Three of these strategies are considered modes of adjusting to a new culture: A strategy of assimilation results in greater sociocultural change; an attitude of integration represents adjustment with a lower level of behavioral change; and a separation strategy is associated with the lowest level of cultural change (Eshel & Rosenthal-Sokolov, 2000).

Cameron and Lalonde (1994) related biculturalism to acculturation where the individual is involved in both host and native culture simultaneously. Such form of acculturation is synonymous with integration. This integration has been considered to be biculturalism (Triandis, 1997). Phinney (1996) defined acculturation as "the extent to which individuals have maintained their culture of origin and adapted to the larger society." This concept ties in closely with the concept of integration. According to the integration or bicultural strategy, such good outcomes arise from blending the host and native cultures, with less or no shedding of central elements of the culture of origin.

Although acculturation has been studied as an indicator of refugees' or immigrants' cultural adjustment, there exist theoretical differences in defining acculturation and in understanding the acculturation process. Some view acculturation as "a linear,

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bipolar" process through which individuals give up their traditional cultural values and behaviors and weaken their ethnic identities as they take on the values and behaviors of the dominant social structure (Phinney, 1990). Others believe that individuals may become highly acculturated at a functional level without giving up their original cultural traditions and ethnic identities. Functional acculturation can be viewed as a process through which individuals adopt cultural behaviors that help them function in the dominant culture. This process does not necessarily require individuals to disclaim their cultural values or disown their ethnic identities (Phinney, 1990).

Social theory on acculturation points to the multidimensional character of the interactions and changes that occur when individuals from one social-cultural milieu come into contact with another, often quite different, cultural system. However, empirical studies often fail to operationalize theoretical concepts of acculturation in ways that capture the complex nature of the interaction. Moreover, both theoretical and empirical studies often fail to take into account the ways the specific social context, in both the sending and the receiving communities, have an impact on the process of acculturation (Weigers & Sherraden, 2001).

Adjustment

Adjustment comprises two broad areas: psychological and the sociocultural areas (Ward & Searle, 1991). Psychological adjustment refers to the contentment of mental health and well-being and satisfaction with life in the new environment as expressed by the sojourners whereas sociocultural adjustment relates to social interactions and adjustment to cultures.

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Psychological Adjustment

Psychological adjustment is related to a set of internal psychological outcomes including a clear sense of personal and cultural identity, good mental health and achievement of personal satisfaction in the new cultural context. Psychological adjustment has usually been measured in terms of level of depression and general level of functioning. Depression covers emotional, physiological and psychological difficulties, which are marked by loss of interest or pleasure in most of one's usual activities (Ward & Searle, 1991).

Socio-cultural Adjustment

The sociocultural adjustment is a set of external psychological outcomes that link individuals to their new context, which includes their ability to deal with daily problems related to climate, food, friends, school, host nationals, and the society at large (Ward and Kennedy, 1994). As for Thai students we expect that food and climate would not require serious adjustments.

Sociocultural adjustment requires adjustment in many aspects of social interactions. As defined by Ward and Searle (1991), it is "the process by which individual changes his or her psychological characteristics, changes the surrounding context, or changes the amount of contact in order to achieve a better fit with other features of the new culture in which he or she carries out his or her life. Gudykunst and Kim (1988) described sociocultural adjustment as the "fit" between individuals and their environment, saying that individuals who have adapted to "foreign" environments have created a "good" fit between themselves and their environment. Sojourners also suffer from "difficulties in replacing the social network of family, neighbours and friends at a time when they are

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF ACCULTURATION WITH PSYCHOSOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-ESTEEM OF THAI MUSLIM STUDENTS IN